Assignment 3 (Due: before December 06, 2009, 13:00hrs)

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan?

So before I answer the question I will just share some ideas about what are those common frustrations of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan.

Use of technology often has unpleasant side effects, which may include strong, negative emotional states that arise during interaction with computers. Frustration, confusion, anger, anxiety and similar emotional states can affect not only the interaction itself, but also productivity, learning, social relationships, and overall well-being. This paper suggests a new solution to this problem: designing human–computer interaction systems to actively support users in their ability to manage and recover from negative emotional states. An interactive affect–support agent was designed and built to test the proposed solution in a situation where users were feeling frustration.

The agent, which used only text and buttons in a graphical user interface for its interaction, demonstrated components of active listening, empathy, and sympathy in an effort to support users in their ability to recover from frustration. The agent's effectiveness was evaluated against two control conditions, which were also text-based interactions:

1. Users’ emotions were ignored,
2. Users were able to report problems and ‘vent’ their feelings and concerns to the computer

Behavioral results showed that users chose to continue to interact with the system that had caused their frustration significantly longer after interacting with the affect–support agent, in comparison with the two controls.

These results support the prediction that the computer can undo some of the negative feelings it causes by helping a user manage his or her emotional state. Some problems stem from the users’ lack of knowledge, poor training, or unwillingness to read instructions or take tutorials. Often frustration results that from flaws in the computer hardware, software, networking, troubling interactions among components supplied by diverse manufacturers, or the result of malicious actions by other users.

A number of preliminary research steps are necessary to guide developers who are working on the goal of making computer usage less frustrating for users. A first step is to gain a better understanding of what frustrates users of computers. Then taxonomies of frustrating experiences can be developed and means to measure their severity and frequency can be identified. These three steps should lead to solutions with enough supporting evidence so that requests for improvements will be well received by all parties involved. Computers can be valuable tools, and networked resources via the Internet can be beneficial to many different populations and communities.

Many e-commerce and e-business firms today are turning to systems planning and systems analysis. Such analysis provides a broader view of organization catering to system development. System development activity aids in producing information systems solutions and provides a platform for resolving organizational problems using information systems. The paper puts light on objectives, management challenges faced by an organization, and road map indicating direction of systems development.

Another thing working on information systems plan takes patience and perseverance. In order to have a good outcome, IS professionals should do profound analysis and must consider a variety of factors. Without a thorough understanding of the problem and organization’s need the IS plan is intended to solve, and without knowledge of the best practices for organizing the required data, the implemented IS plan becomes an unwieldy beast that requires constant attention. Developing an IS plan is never an easy task. That is why there are methods that IS professionals try to follow and standards they try to thrash out. IS plan should serve the company and the users the way it is expected. Learning from my experience from the previous semester, IS professionals’ task does not end with a scrutiny of the information systems. Indeed, they must evaluate the entire message in terms of coherence, the quality of hanging together in the IS plan. To achieve its purpose, statements must be organized appropriately. They must be ordered in a logical manner and should support the business plan of the organization so that the transition between each one contributes to the overall objective of the plan. After answering the first question, my next purpose is to respond to the next question, “What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration in IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan?”

According to Freud, it is not simply the nature of the frustrating incident that determines how people will react to it. Rather, there is interplay between the situation and the psychological characteristics of individuals. The level of maturity of the individual also plays a part in the reactions to frustration (Barker, Dembo, & Lewin, 1965). With maturity, there is an increase in the variety of responses to a situation employed by individuals, in the control of the environment, and in their ability to employ problem-solving behavior and plan steps to obtain the goal. It would appear that learning, which is culturally determined, is a major factor in developing socially acceptable responses to frustration.

Frustration occurs when there is a condition, which interferes with or stops the realization of a goal. It makes us feel useless or worthless. Any interruption to our action or task can be very frustrating. Level of frustration experienced by an individual clearly can differ depending on the circumstances surrounding the frustrating experience and on the individuals themselves. There could be so many causes that lead an IS professional to frustration. Same thing happened to me. I made a list of my goals, when and how to attain those goals. I made my own schedule to help me budget my time and succeed in attaining the goals. But then the outcome was in contrast to what I had expected. I thought if I took those actions then all things would go right. This time, I should say that I am not a good planner but I will still keep on trying. I made a realization that the failure was not because I failed to plan and not because I planned to fail but there was something missing and I have to find out what it was. I learned from that experience and I should do the right thing next time.

Going back to the question, I need to identify the causes of frustrations not the frustrations itself. Similar to my experience, IS professionals fail to have a good plan. It might be because they are only focusing on one factor and others are taken for granted. Since we are dealing with information systems, that is why IS planning requires profound analysis and should consider all factors and all the necessary things that would contribute to the improvement. IS professionals may get tired of the unending revisions of IS plan, they should never ignore themselves be dominated by the feeling instead they should keep on working and let the perseverance power over.

My second idea on frequently experienced causes of frustration in IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan is the lack of support from the management or from the personnel. Without the support, the IS professionals efforts would end up in frustration.

New technologies are emerging and old ones are outdated. Many major technologies can have a life expectancy of less than five years. These pressures have resulted in a drive for new approaches to planning and managing information technology (IT) services. That is why many of the organizations right now are having a greater investment in IT and information systems (IS). This is now the moment that organizations would try to hire IS professionals to have analysis and improvement on their information systems to help them compete in the market.

Design systems by IS professionals could also frustrate users in the workplace. Users find it hard to understand and use the implemented system. This frustration can affect workplace productivity, user mood, and users’ interactions with other co-workers. It also can affect their emotional state. These frustrating experiences also harm organizations by undermining productivity, lowering quality, and raising stress levels. Improving user interface design is one clear opportunity and it would benefit many users. To build better interfaces, more user involvement is needed in the interface design process. Designers should follow the interface guidelines that exist. User training will also help, especially if it addresses problem solving strategies that will help build self-efficacy. Even small changes in the interface can make a big impact on user satisfaction. IS professionals should also be better situated as the intermediary and be able to get better information between users and vendors when understanding frustration in the workplace.

Frustration is a natural feeling after all. Even none IS professionals experience being frustrated. It happens all the time when we fail to take the action and/or fail to attain our goals. Our response to it should be adaptive. Adaptive responses are constructive and are implemented to solve the problem that is blocking goal attainment. They may include preemptive efforts to avoid the problem, or once the problem is encountered, problem solving strategies to overcome or circumvent the problem.

And also strategic planning must be inclined with the business plan. Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. Various business analysis techniques can be used in strategic planning, including SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) and PEST analysis (Political, Economic, Social, and Technological analysis) or STEER analysis involving Socio-cultural, Technological, Economic, Ecological, and Regulatory factors. According to other source, strategic plan is a document used by an organization to align its organization and budget structure with organizational priorities, missions, and objectives. It is also a process of comprehensive, integrative program planning that considers, at a minimum, the future of current decisions, overall policy, organizational development, and links to operational plans. And according to the project management club, strategic planning is a basic document for planning of different projects and their sub-projects. It is based on the content of the Financing Memorandum (FM) and the Monitoring and Evaluation Matrix attached to the Financing Proposal and translates the two documents into detailed operational terms. A satisfactory strategic plan must be realistic and attainable so as to allow managers and entrepreneurs to think strategically and act operationally. In align with that, strategic plan must be reliable and suitable for the need of the company.

In doing a strategic plan, it is not really known to everyone that there are frustrations that may trigger. Frustrations in a way that it may cause depression and stress to the professionals and users that are doing it. In doing an Information Strategic plan, it is really a must that the user and the professionals doing it must first determine the company’s background and other facts and information that can help and then again be a useful tool for the planning.

Computing systems this era raises high in a short period of time. Though our country is a 5 year behind than those countries abroad, still using internet is a common tool for someone like in communications. And more likely in a business, it is also a trend of using internet and intranet in their operations since it can help progress their company. Now a day, an even small scale business also acquires using internet and computers for their daily routine. That is because it can help them improve their skills and at the same time it can lessen the work load since using computers doesn’t requires much time. Relatively, why I’m discussing those computer trend marketing in such a way, since that industry now a days is a computer based industry, lot of professionals and users must be aware of using computer in such a way that it is one of the basic tools for doing the planning.

As what I have stated in the first question of this slide, during our Management Information Systems 1, we did a strategic planning in one of the pronounce company in the city today. Not only here in Davao this company well known, also to the other sites of the city. During our discussions with the group, we have decided to have each an individual task. From that then, we can focus on our topic. But that was one of the problems we have encountered.

Misunderstanding between tow parties is also one of the frustrations that IS professionals encounter. That is one of the frustrations we have. We didn’t know what to do and on the other side we don’t know the topics of our other group. At the end of the compilation, the report of one is not related to the report of the other one, and in vice versa. We then realize our mistake after we have compiled the technical paper. So how can we let ourselves give the technical paper to the company we have if there and else we don’t understand what we did, how much more to them. If such case, we are then called to be the professionals who done lousy approach to the planning for the company we are required to have the plan. Then the user also, such a way that there were the people involved in that strategic plan, are then also approach us lousy for the mistake of some persons. Like what I said above, strategic plan must be reliable so that the company must excel in accordance to era.

Another frustration that may trigger in the planning of this IS plan is the time. Time problem is not only for this kind of situation. Even in our other subjects, we do have difficulty in time management. Stress may occur if we hear the word “deadline”. That can cause cramming that can cause also mistakes. Time management may not be a frustration if and when it was been managed accordingly. But also time management requires more budget than of any other. Since this planning is suitable and a provider for the company, there is also a satisfaction that it can really cost big. Like our technical paper before. By committing mistakes, another big cost is at stake.

That frustrations I have stated is only my point of view. Since I have encountered strategic planning before, I have then encountered such frustration things like that. And that frustration I have encountered might then encountered by those professionals.

These are all my opinion about the question so let’s discuss about what I have interviewed which is the Davao Light and Power Company, as what we have interviewed he told us that frustrations based on his experience is that communication, if there is no proper communication its hard to make an IS plan. If no good communication between the management and the IS professional its hard to make a good IS plan. He also told that budget is also a factor if no budget allocation it’s hard to make an IS plan. Time is also a frustration as what he told us that time is gold indeed. So basically, those were the frustrations that he identified and discussed.


References:
Wikipedia.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration

please visit my blog @ www.franzcie.blogspot.com

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals
and users while working on an IS plan? Note: you are required to interview an IS
professional/s for your answer ...


frustrations of the IT professionals according to them are usual..
like us, yhough we were just only a student are experiencing frustrations specificaly
on the projects that are given at the same time and will be passed on the same week too.

as we are tasked by our instructor to interview an IT professional to be questioned in what
are the two most frequently experienced causes of their frustrations usually in developing Information Systems Plan..
our group decided to adopt a company which is the Rhine Marketing corporation...
before i start to enumerate the two most common experienced frustration and give the company
overview Rhine, I should give first the definition of FRUSTRATIONS and Information Systems PLAN.


Some sources have identified the reasons of an individual being resistant to changes – organizational and technological change. These include the following:

• THE RISK OF CHANGE IS SEEN AS GREATER THAN THE RISK OF STANDING STILL. Making a change requires a kind of leap of faith: you decide to move in the direction of the unknown on the promise that something will be better for you. But you have no proof. Taking that leap of faith is risky, and people will only take active steps toward the unknown if they genuinely believe – and perhaps more importantly, feel – that the risks of standing still are greater than those of moving forward in a new direction. Making a change is all about managing risk. If you are making the case for change, be sure to set out in stark, truthful terms why you believe the risk situation favors change. Use numbers whenever you can, because we in the West pay attention to numbers. At the very least, they get our attention, and then when the rational mind is engaged, the emotional mind (which is typically most decisive) can begin to grapple with the prospect of change. But if you only sell your idea of change based on idealistic, unseen promises of reward, you won’t be nearly as effective in moving people to action

• PEOPLE HAVE NO ROLE MODELS FOR THE NEW ACTIVITY. Never underestimate the power of observational learning. If you see yourself as a change agent, you probably are something of a dreamer, someone who uses the imagination to create new possibilities that do not currently exist. Well, most people don’t operate that way. It’s great to be a visionary, but communicating a vision is not enough. Get some people on board with your idea, so that you or they can demonstrate how the new way can work. Operationally, this can mean setting up effective pilot programs that model a change and work out the kinks before taking your innovation “on the road.” For most people, seeing is believing. Less rhetoric and more demonstration can go a long way toward overcoming resistance, changing people’s objections from the “It can’t be done!” variety to the “How can we get it done?” category.

• PEOPLE FEAR THEY LACK THE COMPETENCE TO CHANGE. This is a fear people will seldom admit. But sometimes, change in organizations necessitates changes in skills, and some people will feel that they won’t be able to make the transition very well. They don’t think they, as individuals, can do it. The hard part is that some of them may be right. But in many cases, their fears will be unfounded, and that’s why part of moving people toward change requires you to be an effective motivator. Even more, a successful change campaign includes effective new training programs, typically staged from the broad to the specific. By this I mean that initial events should be town-hall type information events, presenting the rationale and plan for change, specifying the next steps, outlining future communications channels for questions, etc., and specifying how people will learn the specifics of what will be required of them, from whom, and when. Then, training programs must be implemented and evaluated over time. In this way, you can minimize the initial fear of a lack of personal competence for change by showing how people will be brought to competence throughout the change process. Then you have to deliver.

• PEOPLE HAVE A HEALTHY SKEPTICISM AND WANT TO BE SURE NEW IDEAS ARE SOUND. It’s important to remember that few worthwhile changes are conceived in their final, best form at the outset. Healthy skeptics perform an important social function: to vet the change idea or process so that it can be improved upon along the road to becoming reality. So listen to your skeptics, and pay attention, because some percentage of what they have to say will prompt genuine improvements to your change idea (even if some of the criticism you will hear will be based more on fear and anger than substance).

• PEOPLE FEAR HIDDEN AGENDAS AMONG WOULD-BE REFORMERS. Let’s face it, reformers can be a motley lot. Not all are to be trusted. Perhaps even more frightening, some of the worst atrocities modern history has known were begun by earnest people who really believed they knew what was best for everyone else. Reformers, as a group, share a blemished past . . . And so, you can hardly blame those you might seek to move toward change for mistrusting your motives, or for thinking you have another agenda to follow shortly. If you seek to promote change in an organization, not only can you expect to encounter resentment for upsetting the established order and for thinking you know better than everyone else, but you may also be suspected of wanted to increase your own power, or even eliminate potential opposition through later stages of change.

• PEOPLE FEEL THE PROPOSED CHANGE THREATENS THEIR NOTIONS OF THEMSELVES. Sometimes change on the job gets right to a person’s sense of identity. When a factory worker begins to do less with her hands and more with the monitoring of automated instruments, she may lose her sense of herself as a craftsperson, and may genuinely feel that the very things that attracted her to the work in the first place have been lost. I saw this among many medical people and psychologists during my graduate training, as the structures of medical reimbursement in this country changed in favor of the insurance companies, HMO’s and managed care organizations. Medical professionals felt they had less say in the treatment of their patients, and felt answerable to less well trained people in the insurance companies to approve treatments the doctors felt were necessary. And so, the doctors felt they had lost control of their profession, and lost the ability to do what they thought best for patients.

Now, in any Information System Planning, support of both parties (developer and the client) is very vital on the process of the planning. A developer cannot pursue with his/her goals when the client is not doing his/her part in the planning. If there is planning, these two components is interdependent with each other. Support is essential to a successful project. Projects can fail because of lack of support, because some people in an organization hasn't actively involved key decision makers in determining project strategy and direction. Anybody who is within the organization should keep support throughout the lifecycle of their project and improving project quality down the line. IS professionals often faced with the challenge of dealing to people who are very resistant to organizational change. We all know that we are in fast-paced environment and so changes should be expected and in turn we should have to deal these changes accordingly. However, not all people in an organization is flexible enough to adapt the change, that’s why IS professional should have the ability to effectively influence others, and it is often the solution to achieve desired results. This skill is used daily in meetings and business discussions and when constructing and communicating the business case for a new initiative.

There are six externalities that bring about change. They are regulation, capital markets, competition, technology, globalization and customers. When any of these external contexts changes radically and the company is either unable or unwilling to change, it often results in failure. Company success is very much like human behavior—a result of nature and nurture. But managers refuse to say that they were blessed from above, and so they take all the credit for themselves. They succeed as long as the environment doesn’t change. The underlying theory is that many people in business succeed by accident and not by plan. But, unfortunately, people end up believing what they will succeed forever, and they become resistant to change. They get locked into one paradigm or one way of life. Or in other words, people tend to forget that the environment they are in is changing, that’s why these people never think of facing the change for they got so used to something being a certain way in their lives that they don't want it to change and if they will do will affect their lives as they believed.

Building consensus, properly managing others’ expectations, and translating a concept or initiative into a range of viable options for achieving organizational goals are all critical competencies for today's IS professional. Certainly there are many great managers who take the time and invest themselves in helping their employees understand the changes and how they affect them. Here are some of the things they do:

1. Stop periodically and take a step back to regroup. Sometimes leaders get out in front of the rest of the group and they lose people. This feels like resistance, but it is often simply confusion and a lack of understanding. Each person will "get it" and buy in at different points in the process. Telltale signs are blank stares, input that is off the mark or questions about the purpose of the changes. When it comes to explaining the WHY behind any change, repetition is the key. People will only be ready to hear it and understand it when they are personally ready--in their own time.
2. Make sure people understand that they weren't doing it "wrong" the old way. Sometimes people are hurt or insulted by changes because no one took the time to explain that. Their credibility is at stake, so they fight a personal battle against the new way.
3. Show people how the changes support the mission, vision and strategy of the organization. If they don't see how the change will be good for anything--other than more work (or even losing their job)--they aren't going to get behind it. Too often, senior managers are the only people who sit in a room and discuss the strategic reasons behind a change. Then they wonder why everyone is so "resistant." The best strategy here is to communicate the changes at every opportunity, so that people understand how the changes tie into the big picture. All the senior and middle managers need to participate in one-on-one meetings, small group sessions, round-table discussions and company-wide meetings. These should be done often and with a format that allows for maximum interaction.
4. Help each person see how the changes impact them. Discuss what's in it for them and what they can do to help make the changes in their jobs. Take it down to the details and the specifics so that people can see clearly what the change means and what their part in it is.



Frustration

Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to be. Causes of frustration may be internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, it can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a difficult task. While coping with frustration, some individuals may engage in passive-aggressive behavior, making it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of their frustration, as the responses are indirect. A more direct, and common response, is a propensity towards aggression.

Causes

To the individual experiencing frustration, the emotion is usually attributed to external factors which are beyond their control. Although mild frustration due to internal factors (e.g. laziness, lack of effort) is often a positive force (inspiring motivation), it is more often than not a perceived uncontrolled problem that instigates more severe, and perhaps pathological, frustration. An individual suffering from pathological frustration will often feel powerless to change the situation they are in, leading to frustration and, if left uncontrolled, further anger.

Frustration can be a result of blocking motivated behavior. An individual may react in several different ways. He may respond with rational problem-solving methods to overcome the barrier. Failing in this, he may become frustrated and behave irrationally. An example of blockage of motivational energy would be the case of the worker who wants time off to go fishing but is denied permission by his supervisor. Another example would be the executive who wants a promotion but finds he lacks certain qualifications. If, in these cases, an appeal to reason does not succeed in reducing the barrier or in developing some reasonable alternative approach, the frustrated individual may resort to less adaptive methods of trying to reach his goal. He may, for example, attack the barrier physically or verbally or both.

Rhine Marketing Corporation


People from all walks of life have associated Rhine Marketing Corporation with sewing
machines. Rhine started its operation in Cebu by selling sewing machines on the
installment plans. Today, there are more than 64,000 homes in the country with a Rhine
sewing machine. Rhine, known for its low cost appliance installment schemes, has been
improving the quality of life for thousands of Filipinos by making available all types
of appliances, computers and small industrial equipment: sewing machines, TV's,
refrigerators, pianos, sing-along systems, stereos, VCD & DVD players and components,
electric fans, furniture, spring beds, gas ranges, washing machines, and many more
consumer items, on affordable terms.


RHINE COMPUTER DIVISION - A CORPORATE OVERVIEW

Rhine Marketing Corporation - Computer Division (RMC-CD) is a leading manufacturer of
personal computers, and distributor of a complete line of pheripherals and other
computer-related services.

Established in February 1992, when Rhine Marketing Corporation's interest has evolved
from home appliance business has achieved a good reputation immediately. We not only
provide expertise to meet the increasingly sophisticated needs of our clients, but also
offer solutions that set new standards for quality performance and value.



Information systems Plan

A process for developing a strategy and plans for aligning information systems with the
business strategies of an organization.

characteristics:
Timely. The ISP must be timely. An ISP that is created long after it is needed is
useless. In almost all cases, it makes no sense to take longer to plan work
than to perform the work planned.

Useable. The ISP must be useable. It must be so for all the projects as well as for
each project. The ISP should exist in sections that once adopted can be
parceled out to project managers and immediately started.
Maintainable. The ISP should be maintainable. New business opportunities, new
computers, business mergers, etc. all affect the ISP. The ISP must support
quick changes to the estimates, technologies employed, and possibly even
to the fundamental project sequences. Once these changes are
accomplished, the new ISP should be just a few computer program
executions away.
Quality. While the ISP must be a quality product, no ISP is ever perfect on the first
.try. As the ISP is executed, the metrics employed to derive the individual
project estimates become refined as a consequence of new hardware
technologies, code generators, techniques, or faster working staff. As
these changes occur, their effects should be installable into the data that
supports ISP computation. In short, the ISP is a living document. It should
be updated with every technology event, and certainly no less often than
quarterly.
Reproducible. The ISP must be reproducible. That is, when its development activities are
performed by any other staff, the ISP produced should essentially be the
same. The ISP should not significantly vary by staff assigned.



in Rhine Marketing, we have interviewed MR. Cris Abella a IT personnel on the Davao branch
which is located at the Gestuvo Bldg., San Pedro St., Davao City.
as we asked him on what are the common experienced causes of frustrations in developing Is
plan, he gave us four answers and these are:



System flow or manual procedure
each of the company has its own system flow and manual procedure, so the company should
first identify what are their systems flow so that the IT professional will be able
aware on what he was going to do.

Limitation (restriction)
since all company has its own privacy, the company should identify and will clearly state
what are the do's and dont's in their company. in what phases do the IT professional
can enter.

Cost-
of course after the overview of each of the restrictions and systems flow, the company and
IT professionals should agree in terms of the cost of the project.

MOOD-
it is the most importnat factor that an IT professional should consider since
not all of us are always in the mood to make a project.

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? Note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)

Review:


• What is involved in ISP and how to go about doing it?
• How to link the products of ISP to systems analysis, design and implementation in a timely manner?
• Is one SISP methodology more suitable than another in a given context?
• How to evaluate alternative information systems plans?

Considerations that causes frustration:

These are some factors or barriers that make IS professionals suffer from frustration while working on the Information System Plan. It is considerable that not all IS professionals encounter this but the majority.

Organizational Culture Barriers
Culture of physical/paper records
Their workflow is designed for paper.
Paper provides them a sense of security.
Paper provides proof of action.

Paper is readily available (cheap) .
Culture of organization type
The company is a construction industry and most of its data is on paper .
Staff education lacks priority in organizational plans
because they focus on the fields (sites) .

Technology and Standards Barriers
There is a technical challenge to assure user authentication and successful use of system. The interface for retrieving records would have to be standardized so that providers would not be trying to learn each individual system . There are far more users of information system than there are technical assistants
available to address technical issues . According to them, technical documentation for information system is usually long and not user friendly .Staff maynot receive proper training in user authentication and system use .

Organizationslack adequate infrastructure and role delineation for the development and
enforcement of security, privacy, and information management policies and
procedures No IT personnel .

In-house Resources for Information Management Barriers
There are variations between shifts in both practices and available resources
Shift variation in practice is related to the educational barrier listed previously

. All staff needs to be educated on appropriateness of information, procedures for access and security of the
records .


There is massive data that must be considered .

There is a lack of ways to share IT
educational materials
Some IT educational materials may be proprietary .
There are ways of sharing educational material, but a lack of information/leadership to
execute …
There are insufficient resources for language diversity to assure provision of
information, and comprehension of information given
The personal record needs to be accessible to everyone in order to be successful …

Again,the company is a construction company which means that some of their staff is not
that good in understanding the system technically .
There are variations in resource availability from organization to organization
Providers without the appropriate resources will not be able to participate in the shared
record. These resources could be defined as monetary or technical .
There is a lack of funds and/or resources in some branches .

Resources are limited in rural areas where the project sites are located .
Resources are limited in poor communities where some project sites are located .
There are variations in information technology development from organization to
organization

Som organizations do not have any form of electronic data in which to interface .Most organizations do not have a full EMR implemented yet.

There is a lack of funds for across the board information technology development .
Some organizations lack the ability to attract professional resources due to
geographic

Privacy and Security Leadership Development Barriers
Organizations have dual functions in legal counsel and privacy officer, which spreads staff too thin for effectiveness
Appropriate policies and procedures for privacy and security may not get created or adhered to without proper attention . This could lead to security breaches or inappropriate access .

Organizations exclude privacy experts in information technology solutions up front, and instead include them in the back end of the solutions process. It is always more effective to build privacy and security into a solution than to
tack it on after implementation. These implementations often have other flaws that cannot be addressed after the implementation has been completed .

There is a lack of awareness of who are the privacy experts i.e. HIM Professionals, other .
There is a general lack of security officers for information technology.
The expertise in IT security is essential to performing risk analysis and mitigation . This is a rapidly evolving field that requires people with a detailed knowledge of information security . The potential for security breaches will increase substantially without oversight from these types of professionals .

The security officers’ concept/position is still evolving .
There is a lack of centralized authority or organization for the privacy and security of
construction information.
The policy decisions concerning security protocols around a combined record need to be centralized so that the associated risks can be properly identified and managed . It would cause conflicts to have a violation in one county be allowable in another for example .


Privacy and security are still legal matters and very complex .

Laws are constantly changing .
There is a lack of organizational infrastructure for information edit checks, audits, and general quality assurance of construction information. There would need to be some type of random audit checking to determine if access to a record was appropriate . Providers would need to have a construction need to
view information or there would be violations from the curious to the criminal
. How many people would access the records of a VIP if they were available
electronically?

There are multiple construction information quality assurance systems .
There are multiple people involved in the development of quality assurance of construction information .

Key players are often missing in the planning strategy for quality assurance of construction information .
Legal expertise resides in organizations outside of construction information management staff

Provider staff need education on the operational privacy and security procedures that directly affect them . They will be making the daily decisions that affect the privacy and security of construction information . These decisions may not be appropriate or in line with policies and procedures if the expertise is not available to them .

Construction information management staff often times do not have direct access to the legal expertise .

Construction information management may have to go through two or more persons to access legal expertise .

Legal expertise costs money and is expensive .

The Interview:

• Levels, goals and strategies
  
• Measurement system
  
• Sequence of steps
  
• Implementation and organizational change
  
  

The levels of organizational change
Perhaps the most difficult decision to make is at what "level" to start. There are four levels of organizational change:

• shaping and anticipating the future (level 1)
  
• defining what business(es) to be in and their "core competencies” (level 2)
  
• reengineering processes (level 3)
  
• incrementally improving processes (level 4)
  
  

First let's describe these levels, and then under what circumstances a business should use them.

Level 1- shaping and anticipating the future
At this level, organizations start out with few assumptions about the business itself, what it is "good" at, and what the future will be like.
Management generates alternate "scenarios" of the future, defines opportunities based on these possible futures, assesses its strengths and weaknesses in these scenarios changes its mission, measurement system etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 2 - defining what business(es) to be in and their "Core Competencies
Many attempts at strategic planning start at this level, either assuming that 1) the future will be like the past or at least predictable; 2) the future is embodied in the CEO's "vision for the future"; or 3) management doesn't know where else to start; 4) management is too afraid to start at level 1 because of the changes needed to really meet future requirements; or 5) the only mandate they have is to refine what mission already exists.
After a mission has been defined and a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis is completed, an organization can then define its measures, goals, strategies, etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 3 - Reengineering (Structurally Changing) Your Processes
Either as an aftermath or consequence of level one or two work or as an independent action, level three work focuses on fundamentally changing how work is accomplished. Rather than focus on modest improvements, reengineering focuses on making major structural changes to everyday with the goal of substantially improving productivity, efficiency, quality or customer satisfaction. To read more about level 3 organizational changes, please see "A Tale of Three Villages."
Level 4 - Incrementally Changing your Processes
Level 4 organizational changes are focusing in making many small changes to existing work processes. Oftentimes organizations put in considerable effort into getting every employee focused on making these small changes, often with considerable effect. Unfortunately, making improvements on how a buggy whip for horse-drawn carriages is made will rarely come up with the idea that buggy whips are no longer necessary because cars have been invented. To read more about level 4 organizational changes and how it compares to level 3, please see "A Tale of Three Villages."

One organization we consulted with has had a more positive experience with the incremental approach. We trained an internal facilitator, helped them deliver training in a just-in-time fashion, and had them focus on specific technical problems. The teams management formed reduced initial quality defects by 48%.
The disadvantages of such an incremental approach include avoiding structural, system-wide problems, and assume existing processes need modest improvement. In addition, using incremental approaches can be frustrating to employees and management if (pick a buzzword) does not catch on in the organization. As a result of these disadvantages, many organizations experience a high risk of failure in the long run.

These frustrations are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan. These may be common while working plan, yet the concerned and involved human resource must be prepared.

http://www.organizedchange.com/decide.htm
http://www.crfonline.org/orc/pdf/ref4.pdf

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)


Frustration come from a a latin word frustratus plural form of frustrari means to deceive, disappoint, frustrate has a come to meaning with all the fields of any professionals can experience.

Frustration towards work cannot be avoided. It's part of man's challenges to face, in order to adopt his fast changing environment. It is a feeling of disappointment and discomfort aroused in the mind of human beings only when something has went wrong with them or they are not able to achieve the goals that they had set for themselves.

In today’s competitive scenario every person has his targets that he wanted to achieve timely and if he is not able to achieve his targets he is frustrated. This frustration can affect the mind in negative way in which person’s thinking power gets slowed down. Frustration led a person a take wrong decisions and as a result of which he is not able to come with innovative ideas.

in the competitive world of information technology, IT professionals has a lot of frustration which includes frustration towards work, human relations and even self-frustration.

in this assignment, we were ask to interview any IT professionals on what his views about work frustration.

Sir Cris from Rhine Marketing Computer Division of Davao City has enumerated some frustration towards IT professions.

Sir Cris is expert in database management and has develop more than 10 systems not mentioned his other works as a system developer.

Below is our interview with him:

1. What does frustration means when pertaining to IT?

For me, frustration means the feeling when you are not satisfied with your work and the user of your system is not satisfied with what they had seen in your develop system. IT professionals like me are frustrated with how are we going to come up with a good and user-friendly system that our client will like.

This frustration can sometimes affect us but we have to face it because its a part of our work.


2. What are those frustration that you have encounter in your field?

There are a lot of frustration in our field. Motly this frustration are destructive to us. When we develop our system who have to deal with this frustration.

a. Frustration towards deadline - we got frustrated when we are only given short period of time to develop a big system. This may sometimes leads to overtime but it can be handle when you know how to plan your work.

b. Frustration towards clients - some clients are not open-minded with the trends of technology now a days. People are so frustrated with computers that products and services that make things simpler and more reliable have a huge market. When some hear about computer, they always said that it is a machine of possibility. When errors occur during their usage they got disappointed and directly address their blame to the developer of the system.

c. Frustration towards work environment - Some of our biggest frustrations in life can come from our work environment. It might be work that is unfulfilling, co-workers that we have difficulty getting along with, or demanding organizational structures that seem to strip us of our time and suffocate our passion and creativity. We so often refer to this complex and stressful situation with a blanket term like "career burnout."

d. Frustratioon towards work competition - IT is very stressful career than it seems from outside. Peer Competition and stiff deadlines means long working hours. Some clients wanted an IT professional with low work cost. Someone they can afford to hire. But some low work cost developer are fresh IT graduates. We have to deal with it. Its part of the competition.

e. Frustration towards proving yourself among everyone - Firstly the feeling of frustration is aroused in human beings when they are not able to achieve the targets that they had set for themselves. Secondly the feeling of frustration is aroused when they compare themselves with others and find that they are lacking behind while others had made a rapid progress but they had remained where they were earlier. This causes frustration in them. When the people misinterpret their capabilities and set those targets which are far away from their potentials. They just compare themselves with those who are more educated or are equipped with high potential or more resources and then set their target up to those levels where they factually could never reach. And then when they are not able to meet their targets they get frustrated.

f. Frustration towards fast pace technology - the technology of today rapidly changes. As a IT professionals, we have to be updated with the latest programming trends and latest tools to boost our knowledge. It can equip us to be competitive with our chosen careers. It can be an advantage when you have more knowledge that you can apply with any systems you will develop. Without updates, you cannot call yourself an IT professional because it talks about Information. Information nowadays are very essential with all transactions we do everyday. You have to be very careful and equip with how you handle information.


g. frustration towards failed system or project - some got frustrated when during the date of deployment of the system, there are some circumstances that the system fail to run. It is very to stressful to prove your eligibility towards your work when the system you have develop for months can be failed easily.


HOW TO DEAL WITH FRUSTRATION?


Sir Cris told us that work without frustration if impossible. Being inline with all kinds of work has frustration. So be very open-minded in dealing with it.

Here are some tips how to deal with frustration towards work:

a. NEVER QUIT OUT OF FRUSTRATION

Quitting" is another form of giving in to frustration. Appreciate that this is a tough world and we have to be persistent in order to accomplish. Never turn back in midstream. Follow it through to the end.

Consider how many projects you began -- and then gave up -- because you became frustrated and lost patience. Make a list of things you started and quit because they seemed too difficult. Now calculate the disappointment and loss you suffered by not accepting the frustration.

How do we repair this fault? Look at the list of things you've quit. Choose one and resolve to see it through. And for the rest of your life, once you undertake something, resolve never to quit. (Unless you are objectively sure that it's "not worth it" -- i.e. you initially misjudged the amount of effort required relative to the final payoff.)

Every night before going to sleep, check yourself: Where did I gain and where did I lose?

b. MEDITATE

Meditate. Don't meditate on what is bothering you, but the traditional form of meditation. The clearing of your thoughts, your slow breathing and the quiet atmosphere around you. After 10 minutes or longer you'll find that what is really bothering you is
1)Not situation that brought you to this point in the first place or
2)Blown way out of proportion.

c. MULTIPLE SOLUTIONS

You always have options. You just need to brainstorm and figure them out. Tell yourself you need to come up with 8 possible options to what you’re dealing with. Just knowing that you have lots of options will help to make you feel better. You won’t feel like you are trapped in one negative situation. From your list, figure out the best direction and go for it.

d. TAKE ACTIONS

When you get into serious frustration with a problem, you tend not to want to work on it anymore. It’s hard, it’s frustrating, and you’re not getting anywhere. So, anything to avoid having to be in that situation may be far more attractive. Procrastination may start to set in. If you can keep taking steps forwards, you will probably make it past this temporary hump. As Thomas Edison said, “Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up” and “Surprises and reverses can serve as an incentive for great accomplishment.”

The other thing that can happen is that you start to spend a lot of time worrying. Worrying is a definite way of energy and does not move you in a forwards direction. Only taking action will. Once you start moving forwards again, you will most likely find that you worried for no reason.

e. KEEP AN ACCOMPLISHMENTS LOG

Write down everything you accomplish in a log. If you do it in a monthly format you will be able to see all that you have accomplished in just one month. You may be surprised by how much you have done. If you realize there’s not much on the list, it may open your eyes to the fact that you may be procrastinating more than working or that you are using too much of your energy going in too many directions and that you need to focus more. Hopefully, you will have lots of items on your list then you can see that even though it may not feel like it, you are moving forwards. The log will also help to highlight where you were the most effective and where you need to work harder.

F. FOCUS ON WHAT YOU WANT TO HAPPEN

Go back to the big picture. What is the desired outcome? Sometimes, we get so wrapped up in one problem and trying to solve it that we forget what we were originally trying to accomplish. Try not to ask yourself, “Why did this happen?” Asking questions like that will keep you rooted in the past. It doesn’t offer a solution to the problem. The important thing is knowing the answer to the following two questions:

- What do you want to happen differently this time?”

- What do you need to do in order to get there?



CONCLUSION:

As a IT professional, Sir Cris mentioned that frustration could be destructive or constructive. It depends on how you deal with it. Work frustration is always present. It cannot be taken for granted. You have to deal it with confidence so that it can help you to be optimist. Take work seriously but take frustration as a challenge. Make it as your tool towards self-enhancement.

Be responsible all the time. In IT era, all are expected to be competitive and adaptive towards the fast changing environment. To be part of the growing family of information handler, we must be ready to face challenge that comes our ways.

In school, our lesson teach us on how to be a good planner, a system analyst and a problem solver.

To be an effective IT professionals, be effective, put in four years at a college (or more at a graduate school). This will give you access to some jobs that require credentials, and it will give you a deeper understanding of the field, but if you don't enjoy school, you can (with some dedication) get similar experience on the job. In any case, book learning alone won't be enough. "Computer science education cannot make anybody an expert programmer any more than studying brushes and pigment can make somebody an expert painter" says Eric Raymond, author of The New Hacker's Dictionary. One of the best programmers I ever hired had only a High School degree; he's produced a lot of great software, has his own news group, and through stock options is no doubt much richer than I'll ever be.

To be a problem solver, each must be equip with problem solving techniques:

Faust distills Lyles' method for success at problem solving as follows:

1. Define the problem.
Identify what is wrong by including both a cause and an effect in the definition.

Questions to answer:
* What is really wrong?

* What is happening, or what isn't?

* What do we find unacceptable?

2. Define the objective(s).
What is the outcome you want to achieve as a result of solving the problem? This is your objective.


3. Generate alternatives.
This is where solutions lie, so be creative in this step.

How many alternatives can you generate? Don't try to judge them until you have come up with as many alternatives as possible.


4. Develop an action plan.
Use detail. Most action plans for tough problems involve taking several steps over a period of time.

Questions to answer:
* Who will do what?

* By what date(s)?

* How will this be accomplished?


5. Troubleshoot.
Don't get so carried away about your solution that you avoid this step.

Questions to answer:
* What could go wrong here?

* What could be the side effects?

* How can we ensure this plan will work?

Answer these questions before you proceed.


6. Communicate.
Getting information to the right people is key for getting the buy-in to make it a success.

Questions to answer:
* Which individuals or groups might affect the success of your action plan?

* Who will be impacted by it, and therefore who needs to be informed about it?

* Who will communicate with affected parties?


7. Implement.
Carry out the plan and monitor its implementation.

Questions to answer:
o Who will monitor the plan?
o Who is accountable for each part of the solution?
o What will be the consequences for failure to meet the plan?


Problem Solving vs. Decision Making
When you are using a systematic approach to sort out issues facing your company, problem solving and decision making can follow nearly the same process.

"In problem solving, the first step is to define the problem. The second step is to set the objectives or define desired outcomes," explains Faust.

"In decision making, the first step is to identify the desired outcomes. A systematic decision-making process is pretty much the same as a systematic problem-solving method."

But TEC speaker Mike Murray reminds us that -- in his view -- they are not the same thing, and should be approached separately.

"The mental processing to create the diversity needed for problem-solving is different from 'deciding,'" he says. "The word 'decide' comes from a root word that means 'to kill.' What you don't want to do is mix problem solving -- which is creating alternatives -- with decision making, which is killing alternatives."

REFERENCES:

http://www.aish.com/sp/48w/48956756.html

http://www.ehow.com/how_2202773_deal-frustration-overwhelming-fear-failure.html

http://www.life-with-confidence.com/frustration.html

http://igotgas.blogspot.com/2007/10/seven-steps-to-successful-problem.html



visit my blog ---> htttp://www.tine1416.blogspot.com

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)


On this matter we interviewed Mr. Nilo Ricafort, MIS Manager in EMCOR Davao, Bajada Branch. He gave brief but precise answers. He said that these two would definitely be misconceptions about IS effects in the users’ point of view and misunderstanding between the users’ needs and the developers’ knowledge on how things must be done in standard.

Moreover, I'll discuss the two causes of frustrations:


Misconceptions about IS effects

Misconceptions arise in the part of the users because unlike the developers usually users do not have enough knowledge about how these systems are developed and what are its possible effects. And because of these misconceptions, users tend to expect more from the system and later on they will be frustrated if the effects that the system cause where less than what they have expected. On the other hand, if the systems effect will also be too good, the users will also be overwhelmed and will be start to be conscious about their capabilities to support and use a very good system which may also lead to poor performance in their case. There a re a lot of misconceptions about IS and these are some of them:

Implementation of IS will speed up the process

A lot of people think that if we speak of IS implementation or improvement it means a lot of process will speed up instantly. But if we come to think of it, definitely the positive effects of the said actions will not be seen or felt in an instant. And there are a lot of possible reasons behind the delay of the effects that an IS may bring upon a company. And I found this article that gave some of the examples and also discuss some ways to give it some remedy.
IT professionals face unique challenges when it comes to managing their problems. They know that when hardware/software/client interface produces problems, dynamics are set in motion that can quickly cascade into nightmare proportions:
• Pressure to immediately reestablish service to the customer
• An already existing backlog of trouble tickets
• A relentless daily flow of in-coming trouble tickets
• A reality that sees a problem quickly affect thousands of clients

Users are not involved in IS development

Unlike what they think, users need to be involved in the process of IS development. The IS that will be done must be incorporated with what the users are complaining about there previous system or process. With the help of the users negative or positive feedback about there experience in using their previous system, the developers will be aware on what to areas change or to improve. Moreover, I found an article discussing how the users take a vital role in IS development.
The importance of involving users of enabling technology in all phases of the development and provision of these aids has gradually been focused, and eventually become established, during the last few years. It is, however, far from self evident how to make these ideas and ambitions really come true in the hectic daily activities of Research and Resource Centre, especially when it comes to more profoundly and multiply impaired users. Thus a very small number of such users are actually involved in any long term perspective. Apart from the lingering lack of awareness of needs and possibilities several other factors can be identified, such as:
• A lack of suitable organizational and work settings, flexible enough to offer realistic conditions for multiply disabled to participate and develop together with professionals in this field.
• Lacking working life experience, social networks and self confidence, and a related need for continuous educational programs, among the potential interested users.

:arrow:IS improvement means job loss

There a re a lot of people who thinks that a conversion from an old system to a more IT involved system would definitely mean job loss. This may be true on some cases but this happens rarely. But because of this misconception, users tend to be passive and will not likely give their full support on the development of the new IS. They tend to hinder the developers from crucial information that would build up the success of the new system. They are thinking that if the new system fails then the old system will be retained and they will still have their jobs. They do not realize that IS development does not always mean job loss. This is because it is more convenient for most of the companies to train their old employees for the new system rather than hire new ones. The reason behind this is that companies will not take the risk in giving up on their trusted and proven employees for the sake of hiring new ones that may have the qualities for the new system. Training the present employees will also be less expensive than hiring new ones. If the companies opted to hire new employees they will face the burdens of advertising, interviews and other personality checks and backfires that the new employees may bring because of their need to adopt in the working environment.

Misunderstanding between the users’ needs and the developers’ knowledge on how things must be done in standard
This problem depends on the type of software development that developers choose. I’ll give some examples about the different ways of software development and on what strategies this problem can be seen.

Interactive and Incremental Development

The basic idea behind iterative enhancement is to develop a software system incrementally, allowing the developer to take advantage of what was being learned during the development of earlier, incremental, deliverable versions of the system. Learning comes from both the development and use of the system, where possible key steps in the process are to start with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements and iteratively enhance the evolving sequence of versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration, design modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added.

The procedure itself consists of the initialization step, the iteration step, and the Project Control List. The initialization step creates a base version of the system. The goal for this initial implementation is to create a product to which the user can react. It should offer a sampling of the key aspects of the problem and provide a solution that is simple enough to understand and implement easily. To guide the iteration process, a project control list is created that contains a record of all tasks that need to be performed. It includes such items as new features to be implemented and areas of redesign of the existing solution. The control list is constantly being revised as a result of the analysis phase.

The iteration involves the redesign and implementation of a task from the project control list, and the analysis of the current version of the system. The goal for the design and implementation of any iteration is to be simple, straightforward, and modular, supporting redesign at that stage or as a task added to the project control list. The level of design detail is not dictated by the interactive approach. In a light-weight iterative project the code may represent the major source of documentation of the system; however, in a mission-critical iterative project a forma lSoftware Design Document may be used. The analysis of iteration is based upon user feedback, and the program analysis facilities available. It involves analysis of the structure, modularity, usability, reliability, efficiency, & achievement of goals. The project control list is modified in light of the analysis results.
This method of software development also provides the user the opportunity to participate in the evaluation of the system. But then again, the process is very time consuming because of a lot of iterations and would cause backfires due to the delay in the making of the system.

Adaptive Software Development

Adaptive Software Development is a software development process that grew out of rapid application development work by Jim Highsmith and Sam Bayer. ASD embodies the principle that continuous adaptation of the process to the work at hand is the normal state of affairs.
ASD replaces the traditional waterfall cycle with a repeating series of speculate, collaborate, and learn cycles. This dynamic cycle provides for continuous learning and adaptation to the emergent state of the project. The characteristics of an ASD life cycle are that it is mission focused, feature based, iterative, time boxed, risk driven, and change tolerant.

The word “speculate” refers to the paradox of planning – it is more likely to assume that all stakeholders are comparably wrong for certain aspects of the project’s mission, while trying to define it. Collaboration refers to the efforts for balancing the work based on predictable parts of the environment (planning and guiding them) and adapting to the uncertain surrounding mix of changes caused by various factors – technology, requirements, stakeholders, software vendors, etc. The learning cycles, challenging all stakeholders, are based on the short iterations with design, build and testing. During these iterations the knowledge is gathered by making small mistakes based on false assumptions and correcting those mistakes, thus leading to greater experience and eventually mastery in the problem domain.

This type of software development is very good in having the users cooperate with the development process. This is because the development process will adopt on what the situation is. The users may also be a factor on these situations; thus the system development will also adapt to what the users want.

Overall this frustration depends on the method that the developer will use in software development. It is up to the developers correct planning and assessment on the companies’ situation to ensure that the product system will comply on the standards that the users and the company want.


References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_Software_Development
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_and_incremental_development

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan?

In this topic we were tasked to interview an IT professional. I have interviewed Engr. Miclat of NCCC regarding this question. I have acquired answers of this questions throughout the interview we conducted.

In the information age, as we have become increasingly dependent upon complex information systems, there has been a focus on the vulnerability of these systems to computer crime and security attacks. Because of the high-tech nature of these systems and the technological
expertise required to develop and maintain them, it is not surprising that overwhelming attention
has been devoted by experts to technological vulnerabilities and solutions.

Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to be. Causes of frustration may be internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear ofsocial situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, it can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a difficult task. While coping with frustration, some individuals may engage in passive-aggressive behavior, making it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of their frustration, as the responses are indirect. A more direct, and common response, is a propensity towards aggression.

As a human being, chances are you've said this many times, eitherout loud or in your mind. The great thing about accepting you're frustrated is that you've identified and acknowledged what's going on. It's too easy to carry on struggling with something
and being unaware that it's causing you frustration. Once you've realised that you're frustrated, you're free to make choices about how you handle it. The way you handle your
frustrations is a key to successfully moving on.

One of the best ways to be an observer and to see the situation more clearly is to take a break.Once you've stepped back from the frustration, you'll find it easier to tap into your creativeness and come upwith ideas and solutions. Tap into the creative and resourceful
part of yourself by asking empowering questions. Empowering questions such as "What is important to me about this?", "What is the intended result?", "What choices are available to me?", or "What is the next action I need to take?" When you're asking these questions, listen carefully for your ownresponse. This is where your own personal resourcefulness will show up and give you the answers and solutions to enable you to move forward. You'll quickly move beyond the frustration and get back to achieving what you want.

When frustrations have occurred,it's well worth getting to the source so that you can handle it once and for all. What often leaves us frustrated is when the same problems come up time and time again. Get to the source of your frustration and from that, learn what needs to change or needs to be done differently in the future. Frustrations can also present an opportunity, although it may not feel like it at the time. They're an opportunity for growth and improvement. Next time you feel frustrated, I invite you to see it as an opportunity.

- People have No role Models for the new activity.

Never underestimate the power of observational learning. If you see yourself as a change agent, you probably are something of a dreamer, someone who uses the imagination to create new possibilities that do not currently exist. Well, most people don’t operate that way. It’s great to be a visionary, but communicating a vision is not enough. Get some people on board with your idea, so that you or they can demonstrate how the new way can work. Operationally, this can mean setting up effective pilot programs that model a change and work out the kinks before taking your innovation “on the road.” For most people, seeing is believing. Less rhetoric and more demonstration can go a long way toward overcoming resistance, changing people’s objections from the “It can’t be done!” variety to the “How can we get it done?” category.

-People anticipate a loss of status or quality of life.

Real change reshuffles the deck a bit. Reshuffling the deck can bring winners . . . and losers. Some people, most likely, will gain in status, job security, quality of life, etc. with the proposed change,
and some will likely lose a bit. Change does not have to be a zero sum game, and change can (and should) bring more advantage to more people than disadvantage. But we all live in the real world, and let’s face it– if there were no obstacles (read: people and their interests) align ed against change, then special efforts to promote change would be unnecessary.

-The risk of change is seen as greater than the risk of standing still.

Making a change requires a kind of leap of faith: you decide to move in the direction of the unknown on the promise that something will be better for you. But you have no proof.
Taking that leap of faith is risky, and people will only take active steps toward the unknown if they genuinely believe – and perhaps more importantly, feel – that the risks of standing still are greater than those of moving forward in a new direction. Making a change is all about managing risk. If you are making the case for change, be sure to set out in stark, truthful terms why you believe the risk situation favors change. Use numbers whenever you can, because we in the West payattention to numbers. At the very least, they get our attention, and then when the rational mind is engaged, the emotional mind (which is typically most decisive) can begin to grapple with the prospect of change. But if you only sell your idea of change based on idealistic, unseen promises of reward, you won’t be nearly as effective in moving people to action.

A budget is one of those pivotal tools that is used across many departments within acompany. For the developers, it dictates how much time to spend on specific areas of the application. For the project manager, it's a baseline used to determine whether the project is on track. For sales orthe client, it correlates directly to the success of the effort. It's no surprise that one of the biggest issues in creating a budget is interpretation.

What steps are you taking today to increase your personal leadership and having the career that gives you more juice and energy?There is a resurgence going on in the workplace. Sure there are still some layoffs in places, but career professionals globally are feeling the
"pull" to exercise their personal leadership and create what they want to experience in their career. That desire, for more knowledge, skill, leadership and money is a powerful driver.It's no small feat to
persevere with all that is swirling around us. However there are opportunities to create an emotional "state" change that will serve each one of us in the future. This emotional "state" change is taking action and exercising your personal leadership. It's recognizing the abundant insight available to you, right now. How will you tap into this gift and lead your career and life as a result of what you're learning in this environment.

Watching and paying attention to what's happening around you and not taking personal leadership to make it work for you is a sorely missed opportunity. We are all being gifted with the"breadcrumbs" that give us license to take our own personal leadership to new and untold heights. You are responsible for your career satisfaction and fulfillment. Now, you can lead your self to the best that you deserve. Use the time, energy, opportunities and your personal leadership to do so, today!
When you find yourself in a situation in which your desires, needs or wishes are not fulfilled, you may experience what is commonly known as frustration. It is something that happens to us all, as life rarely goesas planned. Being able to effectively cope with the emotions that so frequently accompany frustration is a critical life skill. When a personallows their frustration to take over, they are not able to think clearly and cannot make rational decisions. This can lead to making detrimental choices from which they may never fully recover. You can learn to overcome feelings of frustration before they get out of control.


REFERENCES:

http://www.articlesbase.com/business-articles/how-to-lead-yourself-out-of-career-frustration-1157353.html

http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/ospp/securityguide/Treason/Infosys.htm

http://www.ehow.com/how_5113823_overcome-frustrations.html



please visit my blog. http://fujiwarayumi.blogspot.com/

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)

Let’s discuss first what is frustration..


Frustration?


Life is full of frustrations. From the minor irritations of losing something to the major problem of continued failure towards a desired goal. Since many of the things we truly want require a degree of frustration, being able to manage frustration is required in order to allow us to remain happy and positive even in trying circumstances.

Definition of Frustration

Frustration is an emotion that occurs in situations where a person is blocked from reaching a desired outcome. In general, whenever we reach one of our goals, we feel pleased and whenever we are prevented from reaching our goals, we may succumb to frustration and feel irritable, annoyed and angry. Typically, the more important the goal, the greater the frustration and resultant anger or loss of confidence.

Frustration is not necessarily bad since it can be a useful indicator of the problems in a person's life and, as a result, it can act as a motivator to change. However, when it results in anger, irritability, stress, resentment, depression, or a spiral downward where we have a feeling of resignation or giving up, frustration can be destructive.

What Causes Frustration?

Frustration is experienced whenever the results (goals) you are expecting do not seem to fit the effort and action you are applying. Frustration will occur whenever your actions are producing less and fewer results than you think they should.

The frustration we experience can be seen as the result of two types of goal blockage, i.e. internal and external sources of frustration.

Internal sources of frustration usually involve the disappointment that get when we cannot have what we want as a result of personal real or imagined deficiencies such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Another type of internal frustration results when a person has competing goals that interfere with one another.
The second type of frustration results from external causes that involve conditions outside the person such as physical roadblocks we encounter in life including other people and things that get in the way of our goals. One of the biggest sources of frustration in today's world is the frustration caused by the perception of wasting time. When you're standing in line at a bank, or in traffic, or on the phone, watching your day go by when you have got so much to do, that's one big frustration.

External frustration may be unavoidable. We can try to do something about it, like finding a different route if we are stuck in traffic, or choosing a different restaurant if our first choice is closed, but sometimes there is just nothing we can do about it. It is just the way life is. Our goal in dealing with external sources of frustration is to recognize the wisdom of the the Serenity Prayer..."God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change; courage to change the things I can; and wisdom to know the difference."

One can learn that while the situation itself may be upsetting and frustrating, you do not have to be frustrated. Accepting life is one of the secrets of avoiding frustration.

Responses

Some of the "typical" responses to frustration, adapted from the ways to deal with frustration website, include anger, quitting (burn out or giving up), loss of self-esteem and self-confidence, stress and depression.

ANGER: Most of us have heard the saying, "Frustration begets anger and anger begets aggression." Direct anger and aggression is expressed toward the object perceived as the cause of the frustration. If a machine does not work, you might hit it or kick it. If someone gets in your way, you could verbally threaten them or push them aside. If the source of the frustration is too powerful or threatening for direct aggression, displaced aggression is often used. The aggression is redirected toward a less threatening and more available object.

An angry person often acts without thinking. The person has given in to the frustration and they have given up restraint. Anger can be a healthy response if it motivates us to positive action but all too often the actions we engage in when angry are destructive. Indeed, if we could see a videotape of ourselves getting angry, the humiliation might well help cure us of anger. When you feel frustration building, you have to practice learned responses that lead to healthy actions instead of destructive ones.

GIVING UP: Giving up on a goal can be productive if the goal is truly out of reach. However, more often giving up (quitting or being apathetic) is another form of giving in to frustration. When repeatedly frustrated, people can drop out of school, quit jobs, or move away. Apathy is giving up all of your goals, so you cannot be frustrated by trying to reach them.

We live in difficult time and we have to be persistent in order to accomplish. Consider how many projects you began, and then gave up, because you became frustrated and lost patience. Make a list of things you started and quit because they seemed too difficult. Now calculate the disappointment and loss you suffered by not dealing with the frustration in a more healthy way. Try to remember that quitters never win, and winners never quit. Losing your temper means you're a quitter.

LOSS OF CONFIDENCE: Loss of confidence is a terrible frequent side effect of giving up and not fulfilling your goal. A loss of self-confidence and self-esteem means that If we quit once, then the next time we plan a goal, we may not be able to accurately assess our ability to carry it out and we stop trusting ourselves and our own abilities. This became a self-fulfilling and self-destructive attitude. You need to be able to learn that when the going gets tough, you say to yourself "It is worth it!" and by following through, it not only gets the job done, but it builds self-confidence.

STRESS: Stress is the "wear and tear" our body and mind experiences as we adjust to the frustrations our continually changing environment. Too frequently, extreme, or prolonged frustration and stress strains us and generates distress signals. Our body experiences distress signals in a variety of ways, often in the form of: irritability, anger, fatigue, anxiety, headaches, depression, stomachaches, hypertension, migraines, ulcers, heart attacks, or colitis.

DEPRESSION: Depression can affect almost every aspect of your life. It affects people of all ages, income, race, and cultures. Depression can affect the way you eat and sleep, the way you feel about yourself, the way one think about things, and the way you interact with others. While we all feel depression at various appropriate times in our lives, excess or inappropriate depression cannot be easily dismissed or wished away.

OTHER REACTIONS: Abuse of drugs or alcohol is self-destructive and usually futile attempt at dealing with frustration, as are many eating and weight problems and addictive behaviors. Whenever the immediate effects of the addictive behavior wear off, users find themselves back in the same, or even worse, frustrating situation.

Learning To Deal With Frustration

It is unrealistic to believe you can rid yourself of frustration forever, but you can learn to do things to minimize your frustrations and to make sure you do not engage in unhealthy responses to frustration.
You will need to learn to distinguish between what you hope will happen, what will probably happen, and what actually happened. Life inevitably has its ups and downs -- its moments of relaxation and times of tension. When you learn to truly accept this reality, you come one step closer to being able to deal with frustration in a healthy way.
There are several types of problems that we encounter in everyday living: those which you know can be solved, those which you are not sure if they can be solved or not, those you know are totally out of your control, and those you are so confused about that you do not even know what the problem is. You need to be able to accurately assess your abilities to alter situations that prevent you from solving your problems and reaching your goal. Then you will be able to assess which of the types of problems you have encountered, and you will then be able to develop a realistic plan.
Learning to take things in stride will also help you to be more content and happy which, in turn, will help you to more easily overcome anger and frustration. If you are upset, sad, anxious, or depressed you will have less patience and tolerance for everything and everybody.

Treatment

Frustration and anger are fundamental emotions that everyone experiences from time to time. From a very early age, people learn to express frustration by copying the behavior they see modeled around them, and by expressing frustration and angry behavior and seeing what they can get away with.

We all suffer from frustration, and being able to effectively deal with frustration is a very important skill to develop. Each person needs to learn how to control frustration, so that it does not control them. The following is a brief overview of types of frustration management programs and resources that have proved helpful in understanding and controlling frustration and anger.

Individual and Group Therapy for Anger Management

For some people, the easiest way to change the way they handle chronic feelings of frustration is to work with a psychologist or other licensed mental health professional in an individual or group therapy setting. A therapist, who can observe and analyze your behavior from an impartial perspective, can help you with your reality testing. An therapist knows many effective frustration and anger management strategies and will be able to help you develop a personalized set of strategies for changing both your thinking and behavior. Depending on your needs, your therapist may work with you on breathing or meditation exercises to reduce frustration, safe and appropriate emotional and physical techniques to release frustration, communication skills, or cognitive restructuring (a method for disputing and changing the way you think).

Relaxation and exercise

Simple relaxation tools such as deep breathing and relaxing imagery can help calm down feelings of frustration and anger. Breathing deeply, from your diaphragm, will help while breathing from your chest won't relax you. While breathing, you can slowly repeat a calm word or phrase such as "relax," "calm down" or "take it easy." Non-strenuous exercise, like yoga, can relax your muscles and make you feel much calmer. Strenuous and vigorous exercise can also help you to work off frustration and angry feelings.

Frustration can have a highly damaging impact on our frame of mind. It can turn a positive person into a person who sees nearly everything as a problem. It can slow you down, inhibit your progress, and at times completely immobilize you. We can become so wound up with our frustration that we do not, and can not, think or act rationally. Our frustration can often exacerbate a situation and create a vicious circle. If we are convinced that our actions are not working, no matter how hard we try, we are much more likely to reduce, rather than increase, our chances of success.

If you feel that your degree of frustration is really out of control, if it is having an impact on your relationships and on important parts of your life, you might consider counseling to learn how to handle it better. A psychologist or other licensed mental health professional can work with you in developing a range of techniques for changing your thinking and your behavior.

Remember, you can not eliminate frustration. In spite of all your efforts, things will happen that will cause you frustration and anger. Life is filled with frustration, pain, loss, and the unpredictable actions of others. You can't change that; but you can change the way you let such events affect you.

Last December 14, we had interviewed the MIS Supervisor of Samulco or the Sta. Ana Multipurpose Cooperative. We asked him what are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan. And he answered, First, was the lack of budget and the second was the resistance to change:

Let's discuss first what is this lack of budget..

I. Lack of Budget- the company only has limited budget for the system or it does not have any budget for the system.

A budget is generally a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for saving and spending. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a budget line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods. In other terms, a budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms.
In summary, the purpose of budgeting is to:

1. Provide a forecast of revenues and expenditures i.e. construct a model of how our business might perform financially speaking if certain strategies, events and plans are carried out.
2. Enable the actual financial operation of the business to be measured against the forecast.

Budgeting is an integral part of society. In today's hurry up and get it done society; every day we are trying to budget our time, our meals, our kids' time and our money. Unfortunately for many, most of this process is done mentally and never put on paper. Remember, just as families budget time and money, your business must also develop a financial plan. This type of budget is simply a formal written summary of your goals and intentions in terms of dollars.

Budgeting requires you to look ahead and formalize future goals. By establishing a budget, you can set goals for achieving a certain level of income and monitor your expenses. Many home based and small-business owners have remarked that their increase in profit margins did not occur until they had a written revenue goal and a method with which to monitor expenses.

Other business owners need to know their sales levels in terms of dollars and how hard they need to work to make the budget work. Sound familiar, goals and budgeting is very much tied together. The closer you come to the goals you have set for yourself, the closer you will come to achieving the budget amount you need. You'll know you are on top of your business when you can tell your accountant that you need to sell 3.25 items per day in order to make your budget work and meet your financial goals.

A budget is a plan that identifies the financial resources required to achieve programmatic objectives. Once constructed, this plan assists staff and board in managing the organization both programmatically and financially throughout the year.
Establishing a schedule of key action and decision points in the process allows adequate time for information gathering and decision making. How long the process should take and who should be involved varies depending on the management style and complexity of the organization. Typically the budgeting process should begin at least four months before the end of the fiscal year to ensure the budget is approved by the Board before the start of the new year.

THE BUDGETING PROCESS

Step 1: Planning the Process

•Identify who will coordinate the budgeting process and which staff, board members and committees need to be involved;
•Agree upon key definitions, assumptions and document formats;
•Set time lines and key deadlines;
• Determine and schedule any training or key meetings.

Step 2: Communicating about the Process

•Clearly communicate responsibilities, expectations and deadlines to everyone involved;
• Explain and distribute forms and assumptions.

Step 3: Programmatic Goal Setting

• Determine program goals and objectives;
• Project staffing requirements and salary and benefit assumptions based on program goals;
• Get board agreement on goals and assumptions.

Step 4: Information Gathering

• Research and gather information about income and expenses based on program goals and assumptions;
• Construct budget details by program;
• Communicate regularly to avoid duplication of effort and to share information and assumptions.

Step 5: Compilation and Revision

•Have one person compile all information, review it for consistency and redistribute to everyone involved;
• Leave plenty of time for review and revisions.

Step 6: Committee Review

•Have the finance committee and other appropriate staff and board committees review a budget draft and key assumptions;
• Be sure to allow enough time between committee meetings and the final approval deadline to address questions and recommendations and make revisions.

Step 7: Final Approval

•Distribute information to the board prior to the board meeting, including budget draft, program goals and other supporting information;
•Have program and development committees play a role in making an informative presentation to the board based on the opportunities, challenges and resources behind the budget numbers;
• Have the finance committee or treasurer present the budget proposal to the board.

Step 8: Implementation and Management The real work begins once the budget is approved:
• Communicate budget, program goals and time lines for the next year to staff;
• Review actual income and expense compared to the budget on a monthly basis;
• Update and revise the budget as there are changes during the year. Depending on the significance of changes, the board may need to approve revisions.

KEYS TO A SUCCESSFUL BUDGETING PROCESS

1. Clearly identify programmatic objectives that are aligned with the mission and strategic plan.

2. Determine the financial resources needed and available to achieve program goals.

3. Involve staff and board members in the process to improve accuracy of information and commitment to the plan.

4. Document! Don’t rely on memory. Write down assumptions and formulas. This will be very important in managing the budget throughout the year.

5. Customize your process. The steps each organization takes will be somewhat different. v

Example
BUDGET PREPARATION SCHEDULE

July/August Step
1: Planning the Process Executive Director meets with financial staff and finance committee to plan budgeting process and set timelines. Budget worksheet and template formats updated.

September
Step 2: Communicating about the Process Staff meeting he
ld to communicate process, responsibilities and deadlines to all participants. Report made to board about process, timelines and assumptions.

Step 3: Programmatic Goal Setting Board and committees review strategic goals and identify priorities; Staff meet within programs/departments to brainstorm and plan for programmatic goals for next year.

September/October
Step 4: Information Gathering Managers draft program or department budgets based on plans and assumptions.

November
Step 5: Compilation and Revision Designated coordinator compiles information to prepare an initial organizational budget draft. Managers review and revise initial draft.

Step 6: Committee Review Finance committee meets to review budget draft and assumptions and make recommendations.

December
Step 7: Final Approval Board meeting held and budget proposal and programmatic and fundraising assumptions are presented for approval.

December/January
Step 8: Implementation and Management Staff meeting held to discuss budget, program goals and timelines for new year.

And the second most frequently experienced causes of frustration is the Resistance to change..

II. Resistance to Change- Resistance to change is the action taken by individuals and groups when they perceive that a change that is occurring as a threat to them.


In today's economy, change is all-pervasive in organizations. It happens continuously, and often at rapid speed. Because change has become an everyday part of organizational dynamics, employees who resist change can actually cripple an organization. Resistance is an inevitable response to any major change. Individuals naturally rush to defend the status quoi they feel their security or status is threatened. Folger & Skarlicki (1999) claim that "organizational change can generate skepticism and resistance in employees, making it sometimes difficult or impossible to implement organizational improvements".

If management does not understand, accept and make an effort to work with resistance, it can undermine even the most well-intentioned and well-conceived change efforts. Coetsee (1999) states "any management’s ability to achieve maximum benefits from change depends in part of how effectively they create and maintain a climate that minimizes resistant behavior and encourages acceptance and support".

Resistance Defined

In order to understand the concept of employee resistance, it is critical to define what is meant by the term resistance Alvin Zander (1950) an early researcher on the subject, defined resistance to change as "behavior which is intended to protect an individual from the effects of real or imagined change" (cited in Dent &Goldberg, 1999, p. 34). Zaltman & Duncan (1977) define resistance as "any conduct that serves to maintain the status quo in the face of pressure to alter the status quo" (cited in Bradley, 2000, p. 76). In the view ofFolger & Skarlicki (1999) resistance is defined as "employee behavior that seeks to challenge, disrupt, or invert prevailing assumptions, discourses, and power relations".

Piderit (2000) believes that the definition of the term resistance must incorporate a much broader scope. She states that "a review of past empirical research reveals three different emphases in conceptualizations of resistance: as a cognitive state, as an emotional state, and as a behavior".

The notion that employee resistance can be overcome cognitively suggests that negative thoughts or beliefs about the change exist. Piderit sites, "Watson (1982) who suggests that what is often labeled as resistance is, in fact, only reluctance. Armenakis, Harris, and Mossholder (1993) define resistance in behavioral terms but suggest that another state precedes it: is a cognitive state they call (un)-readiness" (2000, p. 785). Others attempt to define employee resistance based on the emotional factors exhibited as a result of organizational change. From their early study, Coch and French (1948) acknowledged aggression and frustration in employees as the emotional factors that caused undesirable behaviors and resistance to change.

Argyris and Schon (1974, 1978) noted that resistance to change is a defense mechanism caused by frustration and anxiety (Piderit, 2000). The final aspect of Piderit's conceptualization focuses on individual behavior in an attempt to define employee resistance to change. She cites Brower and Abolafia (1995) who define resistance as a particular kind of action or inaction. Ashforth and Mael (1998) define resistance as intentional acts of commission(defiance) or omission. Shapiro, Lweicki, and Devine (1995) suggest that willingness to deceive authorities constitutes resistance to change (2000). Piderit (2000) claims that: although these conceptualizations of overlap somewhat, they diverge in important ways. Finding a way to bring together these varying emphases should deepen our understanding of how employees respond to proposed organizational changes.

Each of these three conceptualizations of resistance- as a behavior, an emotion, or a belief - has merit and represents an important part of our experience of response to change. Thus, any definition focusing on one view at the expense of the others seems incomplete (p. 785). According to Dent & Goldberg (1999), individuals aren't really resisting the change, but rather they may be resisting the loss of status, loss of pay, or loss of comfort. They claim that, "it is time that we dispense with the phrase resistance to change and find a more useful and appropriate models for describing what the phrase has come to mean - employees are not wholeheartedly embracing a change that management wants to implement".

Early Research

In the 1940's, social psychologist Kurt Lewin first introduced the idea of managing and removing” resistance" to proposed changes occurring within organizations. His early work focused on the aspects of individual behavior that must be addressed in order to bring about effective organizational change. Morgan (1997) states that: Lewin suggested that any potential change is resisted by forces in the opposite direction. The idea is similar to the dialectical principle that everything generates its opposite. But within Lewin's framework, the forces tend to be external to the change, holding situations in states of dynamic equilibrium. His solution was to advocate that successful change rests in "unfreezing" an established equilibrium by enhancing the forces driving change, or by reducing or removing resisting forces, and then” refreezing" in a new equilibrium state (p. 294).

The first known published reference to research on resistance to change in organizations was a 1948 study conducted by Lester Coach and John R. P. French entitled, "Overcoming Resistance to Change." Their research, which generated a large body of work on the importance of employee involvement in decision-making, was conducted at the Hardwood Manufacturing Company, a pajama factory located in Virginia.

This study focused on the main questions (1) Why do people resist change so strongly? and (2) What can be done to overcome this resistance? (Dent & Goldberg, 1999). In 1950, Alvin Sander wrote, "Resistance to Change-Its Analysis and Prevention." His article made an early distinction between the symptoms of resistance, like hostility or poor effort, and the underlying causes forth behavior. Dent & Goldberg (1999) state, "Rather than providing a systems model, Sander equates resistance in organizations to that of a psychotherapist and a patient. His primary advice for practicing managers is to know what the resistance means so that they may reduce it by working on the causes rather than the symptoms" (p. 33). Sander, who was a close colleague of Kurt Le win and leaned heavily on his work, offered six primary reasons for resistance to surface. (1).

If the nature of the change is not made clear to the people who are going to be influenced by the change. (2). If the change is open to a wide variety of interpretations. (3). If those influenced feel strong forces deterring them from changing. (4). If the people influenced by the change have pressure put on them to make it instead of having a say in the nature or the direction of the change. (5).If the change is made on personal grounds. (6). If the change ignores the already established institutions in the group (cited in Dent & Goldberg, 1999, p. 33).

The Nature and Causes of Resistance

Symptoms are the specific behaviors individuals’ exhibit when they are resistant to change. According to Bhutan (1995), it is important to distinguish between the symptoms of resistance to change, and the causes behind it. These behaviors fall into two categories -- active-resistance or passive-resistance. Symptoms of active-resistance include finding fault, ridiculing, appealing to fear, and manipulating. Passive-resistance symptoms include agreeing verbally but not following through, feigning ignorance and withholding information. Bhutan (1995) adds, "there is always the danger of identifying a symptom of resistance when you are really looking for its cause. To diagnose the causes, we must understand a person's state of mind.

The most important factors that go into a person's state of mind are his or her facts, beliefs, feeling, and values" (p.16). The list of reasons why individuals might be resistance to organizational change has grown since Sander’s initial six published in 1950. It is safe to assume that any attempts to cover all of them would produce volumes of literature. However, there are several that are quite common and prevalent, which help provide solid basis to understanding the concept. Employees resist change because they have to learn something new. In many case there is not disagreement with the benefits of the new process, but rather a fear of the unknown future and about their ability to adapt to it. de Jag er (2001) argues, 'Most people are reluctant to leave the familiar behind. We are all suspicious about the unfamiliar; we are naturally concerned about how we will get from the old to the new, especially if it involves learning something new and risking failure" (p. 24).

Low tolerance for change is defined as the fear that one will not be able to develop new skills and behaviors that are required in a new work setting. According to Kotter & Schlesinger (1979), if an employee has a low tolerance for change, the increased ambiguity that results as a result of having to perform their job differently would likely cause a resistance to the new way of doing things. An employee may understand that a change is needed, but may be emotionally unable to make the transition and resist for reasons they may not consciously understand. Folger & Skarlicki (1995) investigated resistance to change as a response to the treatment employees receive in the change process. Specifically they focus on resentment-based resistance -reactions by disgruntled employees regarding the perceived unfairness of the change.

They claim that "resent-based resistance behaviors, which can range from subtle acts of non-cooperation to industrial sabotage, are often seen by the perpetrators as subjectively justifiable - a way to "get even" for perceived mistreatment and away for employees to exercise their power to restore perceived injustice" (p. 36). Paul Strebel (1996), professor and director of the Change Program for international managers at the International Institute for Management Development (IMD), attributes resistance as a violation of "personal compacts" management has with their employees. Personal compacts are the essence of the relationship between employees and organizations defined by reciprocal obligations and mutual commitments that are both stated and implied. Any change initiatives proposed by the organization would alter their current terms.

Personal compacts are comprised of formal, psychological, and social dimensions. The formal dimension is the most familiar. It is the aspect of the relationship that addresses the basic tasks and performance requirements of the job, and is defined by job descriptions, employee contracts, and performance agreements. Management, in return, agrees to supply the employee the resources needed to perform their job. The psychological dimension addresses aspects of the employment relationship that incorporate the elements of mutual trust, loyalty and commitment. The social dimension of the personal compact deals with organizational culture, which encompasses, mission statement, values, ethics and business practices.

Strebel points out that when these personal compacts are disrupted it upsets the balance, and increases the likelihood of resistance. He suggests that management view how change looks from the employee’s perspective, and to examine the terms of the personal compacts currently in place. 'Unless manages define new terms and persuade employees to accept them, it is unrealistic for managers to expect employees to fully buy into changes that alter the status quo" (p. 87). Kegan & Lahey (2001) describe a psychological dynamic called a "competing commitment" as the realreason for employee resistance to organizational change. The change is not challenged, but rather is it resisted, or not implemented at all because the employee faces additional issue or concerns related to the change. When an employee's hidden competing commitment is uncovered, "behavior that seems irrational land ineffective suddenly becomes stunningly sensible and masterful - but unfortunately, on behalf of a goal that conflicts with what you and even the employee are trying to achieve" (p. 85). Competing commitments should not be viewed as a weakness, but as a version of self-protection.

If the scampering commitments are a form of self-protection, then what are employees protecting themselves from? Kegan & Lahey believe the answer usually lies in what they call "big assumptions" - deeply rooted beliefs people have about themselves and the world around them. Many rarely realize they hold big assumptions because they are woven into the very fabric of people's existence, and thus they accept them as reality. "these assumptions put an order to the world and at the same time suggest ways in which the world can go out of order. Competing commitments arise from these assumptions, driving behaviors unwittingly designed to keep the picture intact" (p. 88).

Positive Resistance

Managers often perceive resistance negatively, and employees who resist are viewed as disobedient and obstacles the organization must overcome in order to achieve the new goals. However in certain instances, employee resistance may play a positive and useful role in organizational change. Insightful and well-intended debate, criticism, or disagreement do not necessarily equate to negative resistance, but rather maybe intended to produce better understanding as well as additional options and solutions. de Jager (2001)claims, "the idea that anyone who questions the need for change has an attitude problem is simply wrong, not only because it discounts past achievements, but also because it makes us vulnerable to indiscriminate and ill-advised change' (p. 25).

Piderit (2000) points out that what some managers may perceive as disrespectful or unfounded resistance to change might be motivated by an individual's ethical principles or by their desire to protect what they feel is the best interests of the organization. Employee resistance may force management to rethink or reevaluate a proposed change initiative. It also can act as a as a gateway or filter, which can help organizations select from all possible changes the one that is most appropriate to the current situation. According to de Jager(2001), "resistance is simply a very effective, very powerful, very useful survival mechanism' ' (p. 26). Folgers & Skarlicki (1999) claim "that not all interventions are appropriate as implemented -the organization might be changing the wrong thing or doing it wrong. Just as conflict can sometimes be used constructively for change, legitimate resistance might bring about additional organizational change" (p. 37).

The Six (6) Change Approaches of Kotter and Schlesinger is a model to prevent, decrease or minimize resistance to change in organizations.

According to Kotter and Schlesinger (1979), there are four reasons that certain people are resisting change:

• Parochial self-interest (some people are concerned with the implication of the change for themselves ad how it may effect their own interests, rather than considering the effects for the success of the business)
• Misunderstanding (communication problems; inadequate information)
• Low tolerance to change (certain people are very keen on security and stability in their work)
• Different assessments of the situation (some employees may disagree on the reasons for the change and on the advantages and disadvantages of the change process)

Kotter and Schlesinger set out the following six (6) change approaches to deal with this resistance to change:

1. Education and Communication - Where there is a lack of information or inaccurate information and analysis. One of the best ways to overcome resistance to change is to educate people about the change effort beforehand. Up-front communication and education helps employees see the logic in the change effort. this reduces unfounded and incorrect rumors concerning the effects of change in the organization.

2. Participation and Involvement - Where the initiators do not have all the information they need to design the change and where others have considerable power to resist. When employees are involved in the change effort they are more likely to buy into change rather than resist it. This approach is likely to lower resistance and those who merely acquiesce to change.

3. Facilitation and Support - Where people are resisting change due to adjustment problems. Managers can head-off potential resistance by being supportive of employees during difficult times. Managerial support helps employees deal with fear and anxiety during a transition period. The basis of resistance to change is likely to be the perception that there some form of detrimental effect occasioned by the change in the organization. This approach is concerned with provision of special training, counseling, time off work.

4. Negotiation and Agreement - Where someone or some group may lose out in a change and where that individual or group has considerable power to resist. Managers can combat resistance by offering incentives to employees not to resist change. This can be done by allowing change resistors to veto elements of change that are threatening, or change resistors can be offered incentives to leave the company through early buyouts or retirements in order to avoid having to experience the change effort. This approach will be appropriate where those resisting change are in a position of power.

5. Manipulation and Co-option - Where other tactics will not work or are too expensive. Kotter and Schlesinger suggest that an effective manipulation technique is to co-opt with resisters. Co-option involves the patronizing gesture in bringing a person into a change management planning group for the sake of appearances rather than their substantive contribution. This often involves selecting leaders of the resisters to participate in the change effort. These leaders can be given a symbolic role in decision making without threatening the change effort. Still, if these leaders feel they are being tricked they are likely to push resistance even further than if they were never included in the change effort leadership.

6. Explicit and Implicit Coercion - Where speed is essential and to be used only as last resort. Managers can explicitly or implicitly force employees into accepting change by making clear that resisting to change can lead to losing jobs, firing, transferring or not promoting employees.



references:

http://www.scribd.com/doc/19218916/Employee-Resistance-to-Change
http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_kotter_change_approaches.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget
http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/emotional_problems_psychologist/pyschologist_frustration.htm
http://www.nonprofitsassistancefund.org/files/MNAF/ArticlesPublications/BudgetingProcess.pdf

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What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)

We all have to deal with frustration every once in a while in our lives. Even at a young age, we may already have experienced our own bouts on frustration. I can still remember mine as a kid, I would often get frustrated whenever I play Super Mario. Even if I had infinite lives, it’s still irritating to die repeatedly and not advance to the next world level.

Of course, school has its own way of serving us our usual dose of frustrating events. Countless nights of study and long hours spent on a project, only to fail or get below average marks. It can really be quite discouraging. But looking at the bright side, I believe that all those years of dealing with frustration gave me strength and the proper perspective to overcome my weaknesses. It has invaluably prepared me to conquer more challenging disappointments in the future such as feeling stuck and defeated in my work, my relationships and most specially in my finances.

So how do I deal with life’s frustrations? Well, perhaps the first and most immediate thing I do is to stop and take my mind off the things that frustrate me. I conserve whatever energy is left in me and use it to recharge myself. I do what my favorite poem tells me, “Rest, if you must, but don’t you quit.”

I shut down everything temporarily and go inside my sanctuary – armed with music and my favorite comfort foods, I drive around the city without a destination. Yes, this routine has been very therapeutic for me for the past years. I would spend a couple of hours without worries inside my car and let all my troubles settle at the back of my mind.

Other than driving, I’ve also managed to come up with other things to do whenever I’m feeling depressed and frustrated. Some of which are spending time and talking with friends, writing my frustrations down and then burning the paper (I know, how dramatic) and sometimes, I simply go out for a jog inside our village. I guess the key here is to release the frustrations in a non-aggressive way.

Of course, your problems won’t get solved by simply doing that. Chances are, it will still be in the same state when you come back from taking a break. However, what I hope to be different this time is my enthusiasm to tackle the difficulties once again. Moreover, with revitalized energy, I am now more capable to think and act towards succeeding this time. Upon my return, I take stock of everything at hand and systematically analyze the situation by asking myself such questions:
• What have I learned so far?
• What do I think is the real reason that’s causing me to fail?
• How do I remedy and prevent mistakes this time?
• Is there another way to accomplish my goal?

Furthermore, I always keep in mind that frustration may lead to aggression and procrastination. Remembering so helps me act consciously without negativity and delay. When your goals seems to be so near yet so far, take positivity from the small accomplishments you’ve already attained and learn to also reward your efforts, not just your results. In the end, when you finallyachieve your goals, you’ll find yourself stronger in character and more ready to face greater challenges.
Man is a social element, so family and society influence our feelings, emotional arena while we come across any situation and get fail or not reach up to mark; any such adverse situation brings frustration. Trivial routines are capable to built frustration, e.g. inattentiveness of today's busy parents brings their children frustration. Learning disabilities at schools often frustrate students. Friends can cause us frustration too, especially when they betrayed us or a promise is broken. Broken promises are always frustrating and painful. Apart there are lots of situations or surroundings factors that could bring frustration in our life. The intensity of frustration phase may be variable from person to person and it depends upon prevailing circumstances at that time. Frustration is an outcome of many accrued 'negative emotions'. Such negativities in our behavior, as well as our external circumstance give rise to frustration. it is virtually impossible to list down each and every negativity associated with frustration. As stated earlier, many of these factors are relative in nature and obviously they will vary according to individual life experiences and personalities. We can say that frustration is a result or a complement of other behavioral negativities like envy, guilt, fear, phobia, jealousy, distrust, failure, loneliness, betrayal, shame and many more.

Our own emotions can make us frustrated, like misunderstandings, misinterpreting the situation, suspicion, pride, arrogance etc. can unnecessarily bring the frustration. Every work that is done means is a unified combination of task and our performance or efficiency so as to get that work done. To avoid frustrations, we need to accept our factual position instead of putting hopes on vague imagination in which the situation would have been different. We need to co-relate our dreaming behavior to actual situation. When we observe ourselves carefully, we can actually realize our limitations and hence can work towards exploring our available resources unless it would cause even more frustration.

Our surrounding is a factors as well as assisting team play major role on our working ability. If our working ability gets hampered by external factors like non-cooperation of workers, that will bring frustration. We cannot expect any improvement against expressed will of other person if one is unwilling to put in the effort for it. If we waste our energy on such futile team that in fact is not interested in co-operating us, we get frustrated, we waste precious energy and attention and we will find ourselves stuck in a downward spiral of performance.

Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to be. Causes of frustration may be internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, it can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a difficult task. While coping with frustration, some individuals may engage in passive-aggressive behavior, making it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of their frustration, as the responses are indirect. A more direct, and common response, is a propensity towards aggression.

To the individual experiencing frustration, the emotion is usually attributed to external factors which are beyond their control. Although mild frustration due to internal factors (e.g. laziness, lack of effort) is often a positive force (inspiring motivation), it is more often than not a perceived uncontrolledproblem that instigates more severe, and perhaps pathological, frustration. An individual suffering from pathological frustration will often feel powerless to change the situation they are in, leading to frustration and, if left uncontrolled, further anger.

Frustration can be a result of blocking motivated behavior. An individual may react in several different ways. He may respond with rational problem-solving methods to overcome the barrier. Failing in this, he may become frustrated and behave irrationally. An example of blockage of motivational energy would be the case of the worker who wants time off to go fishing but is denied permission by his supervisor. Another example would be the executive who wants a promotion but finds he lacks certain qualifications. If, in these cases, an appeal to reason does not succeed in reducing the barrier or in developing some reasonable alternative approach, the frustrated individual may resort to less adaptive methods of trying to reach his goal. He may, for example, attack the barrier physically or verbally or both.

Frustration can be considered a problem-response behavior, and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contend with, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside of their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction).

Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out by Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue nonadaptive behavior blindly: “Either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired” .

The emotion you’re feeling is “Frustration”.

With a capital “F”. Maybe even add in some anger because you’ve been working really hard towards your goal or on a project and it just isn’t working. Or you feel like you’re stuck in a dead-end job and can’t find another one. And you may not even really know why. All you know is that you seem to be stuck and no matter how hard you try, you don’t seem to get anywhere. You’re just spinning your wheels in the mud and all you feel is pure frustration. Sound familiar?
This is the point where a lot of people will just say, “I Quit” and give up. Before you do though, here’s 8 ways you can blast through any frustration:

1. Ask Yourself, “What Is Working in This Situation?”
Even if feels like nothing is working, look closely and you will probably find at least something that is going right. So, that’s good. You’ve found something that’s working. Now, how do you improve it? By asking this question, you’ve taken yourself out of the negative mindset of “it’s hopeless” and are back to focusing on the positive.
There's something that’s working and that will give you a clue of what direction to focus on. You may find that even if your previous issues come up you’ll be able to resolve them in the process of concentrating on your improvements.

2. Keep an Accomplishments Log
Write down everything you accomplish in a log. If you do it in a monthly format you will be able to see all that you have accomplished in just one month. You may be surprised by how much you have done. If you realize there’s not much on the list, it may open your eyes to the fact that you may be procrastinating more than working or that you are using too much of your energy going in too many directions and that you need to focus more. Hopefully, you will have lots of items on your list then you can see that even though it may not feel like it, you are moving forwards. The log will also help to highlight where you were the most effective and where you need to work harder.

3. Focus On What You Want to Happen
Go back to the big picture. What is the desired outcome? Sometimes, we get so wrapped up in one problem and trying to solve it that we forget what we were originally trying to accomplish. Try not to ask yourself, “Why did this happen?” Asking questions like that will keep you rooted in the past. It doesn’t offer a solution to the problem. The important thing is knowing the answer to the following two questions:
- What do you want to happen differently this time?”
- What do you need to do in order to get there?

4. Remove the “Noise” and Simplify
When you’re trying to solve a problem, you can get so wrapped up in trying to find a solution that you add unnecessary clutter, noise, and tasks to a project because you thought they “might” be a solution.
Working on this website, I get bombarded by offer after offer of “easy ways to run your website”, “get more traffic”, “make more money” etc. They’re just noise though and usually a waste of my time even reading them. These people are just trying to make money off of me. They have no interest in whether I succeed or not. When people are frustrated by how slow the hard work process is taking, they get tempted by these “here’s what you’ve been missing” and “I’ll make it easy for you” offers. Usually, it ends up that if you do get tempted by the offers you discover 6 months down the road that if you had just stuck with your first plan and just kept working at it, you’d be a lot further ahead by now. Not to mention richer from not having spent money on the Get Rich Quick schemes. Believe in yourself. Simplify and go back to the basics. Determine what is really necessary and remove everything else. Anything that takes your time and effort that isn’t adding value, should be eliminated.

5. Multiple Solutions
You always have options. You just need to brainstorm and figure them out. Tell yourself you need to come up with 8 possible options to what you’re dealing with. Just knowing that you have lots of options will help to make you feel better. You won’t feel like you are trapped in one negative situation. From your list, figure out the best direction and go for it.

6. Take Action
When you get into serious frustration with a problem, you tend not to want to work on it anymore. It’s hard, it’s frustrating, and you’re not getting anywhere. So, anything to avoid having to be in that situation may be far more attractive. Procrastination may start to set in. If you can keep taking steps forwards, you will probably make it past this temporary hump. As Thomas Edison said, “Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up” and “Surprises and reverses can serve as an incentive for great accomplishment.”
The other thing that can happen is that you start to spend a lot of time worrying. Worrying is a definite way of energy and does not move you in a forwards direction. Only taking action will. Once you start moving forwards again, you will most likely find that you worried for no reason.

7. Visualize a Positive Outcome to the Situation
A lot of times you can get stuck on focusing on what you don’t want to happen or fearing the absolute worst thing that could happen. The top athletes of the world will imagine themselves competing flawlessly over and over again. There is no room for failure in their minds. This is what you need to focus on as well. See yourself achieving your desired outcome. What will it look like? What will it feel like? What will you say? How will you feel? Take the time to visualize it and really feel it. It will inspire you to keep moving forwards.

8. Stay Positive
Things are usually not as bad as they first appear. Sometimes, things seem much worse simply because we’re tired or mentally drained. Taking a break and remembering to keep your sense of humour can also help. This time of frustration will pass. A positive mind is far more open to solutions and answers than a negative one that thinks it’s just “hopeless” and thinks “what’s the use?” A closed mind will not be able to see the possible solutions when they do come along. Stay positive.
As with any problem, the solution is to figure out what your options are, decide on a plan, focus, and then take action. By using the above 8 steps, you should find that you’re running into fewer problems and feeling less frustration. Instead, you may find that you’re running into opportunities and you know exactly how to take advantage of them.


RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
The rationale for resistance is often quite straightforward as people justify their actions to themselves. If you want to overcome resistance to change, you must be able to answer the following points.

I want to stay where I am because…
Even if you offer me a bowl of cherries, I may not be very concerned to take what you proffer if I am happy where I am now. People who have been in the same place for a long time are usually in this state. They do not need to change and will view any suggestion of change with distaste.

…my needs are already met here
Needs are basic drivers of action. If needs are not perceived as being particularly threatened and the current situation is relatively comfortable (particularly in comparison with the proposed change) then I will be happier to stay where I am.
If people already have their needs met, then you will need to shake the carpet and provide some sort of threat to those needs so they are no longer sufficiently met for the person to want to stay where they are.

…I have invested heavily here
When I have invested a lot of time and energy in building up my position, both socially and organizationally, then any change may mean bad news. Social investment creates a person's sense of identity. Organizational investment gives them control. Sliding down the ladder that I have so painstakingly climbed over the year is a long way from my shopping list.
Where people have invested heavily, you will either have to show them how to get to a similar position in the new organization or otherwise reduce the value of their investment (for example by moving the people over whom they have social influence).

...I am in the middle of something important
When I have committed to achieving a goal, either personal or emotional, then a part of my integrity and hence identity may be bound up in achieving the goal. When I have partly completed something, I am also affected by the need for completion, such that I will feel uncomfortable with stopping now.
When people are busy, find ways for them to complete the work in the shorter term, perhaps by nudging their goals so they have less to do to complete. If possible, turn their work towards something that will be useful for the new organization.

I do not want to change because…
Even if I am not that happy where I am, I still may not be particularly interested in moving forward with the change.

…the destination looks worse than where I am now
Although I want to move, the final resting place of the change looks significantly worse for me than the current position. I feel it is like jumping out of the frying pan and into the fire.
If you want people to voluntarily move, then it must be to somewhere better than they are now. You can create this in two ways: first by making the present position worse (though be careful with this!) and secondly by building a rosy vision to which people can then attach their dreams.

…there is nothing to attract me forwards
If the change is nothing to do with me, if the benefits are all for other people or the general organization, if I just do not buy the 'vision' as sold, then I will feel no pull and I will not buy into the change.
You may offer forth a brilliant vision, but do the people buy it? Make sure your communications are clear and couched in terms that people can understand and buy into. Make your visions inclusive, such that people really can and will buy the change.

…I do not know which way to move
If I buy the vision, I may still may not know which way to jump. Some change projects sound wonderful, but people are left wondering what to do (even the managers).
Grand plans need to be turned into tactical detail in which people can see and easily take the step forward.

…the journey there looks painful
The final destination may be great, but the journey from here to there looks very uncomfortable. The anticipated pain of the transition is more immediate than the distant and hazy future, and I respond more to this than to any inspiring vision.
Make sure the transitional period between now and the final change does not appear so uncomfortable that people refuse to join you. In practice, it may not be that bad -- what counts, though, is the perception of the people, so design the transition well and then communicate it well.

...the destination or journey is somehow bad or wrong
If the transition or the final destination somehow transgresses my values, then I will judge it to be bad or wrong and will be very loathe to join the party.
Be careful with the change in working around established organizational and general social values. If you must break an unwritten rule (such as getting rid of people) then do so with appropriate consideration and care.

…I do not trust those who are asking me to change
If my experience of you is that you have been untrustworthy in the past, then I am not likely to buy your vision of the future. If you are going on what I perceive as a perilous journey, then I will not trust you and will not join you.
The integrity of leaders is a very important attribute. If you want people to follow you, then you must give them good reason to trust you.

I am not going to change because…
Even if people do not want to change, they may still have to do so, albeit truculently. Some people, how ever, have the wherewithal to refuse.

…I am able to ignore the change
One of the questions I will ask is 'What happens if I do not go along with the change?' If the negative implications for my non-compliance are negligible, then I can happily not join in.
This sort of situation occurs when the person in question is so valued by the organization that the idea of them leaving is unthinkable. This is often where difficult choices around change take place. What do you do with the laggards? If this problem is not addressed, then the people around them may take their lead and before long you have a silent revolution on your hands.

…I have the power to obstruct the change
Another reason why a person can happily ignore the change is because they can stop it. People in senior positions often treat change as being a good thing -- as long as it is for someone else. When faced with change themselves, they may do whatever it takes to scupper the change, for example by refusing to give needed access or other support.
This is a good test of the senior sponsor of change -- which may need to be the most senior officer in the organization. Those who actively oppose the change must be dealt with -- preferably kindly and in in an understanding way, but ultimately in a firm and final way.


MAIN REASONS:
• Fear of the unknown. Change implies uncertainty, and uncertainty is uncomfortable. Not knowing what may potentially happen often leads to heightened anxiety. Resisting change is one of the anxiety-reducing actions.1
• Fear of failure. The new order may require skill and abilities that may be beyond our capabilities. There is resistance to trying a new approach as people know how to operate in the existing order, but fear they will not be able to the new skills and behavior that will be required of them.
• Disagreement with the need for change. Associates may feel that the new direction is a wrong direction.
• Losing something of value. All associates want to know how the change will affect them. If people believe they will wind up losing as a result of the change, they will resist.
• Leaving a comfort zone. People are afraid to go after what they want because it would force them to stretch their comfort zones. It's only natural to put off things that scare us, to sidestep goals that require us to leave our comfort zone and take a risk.
• False beliefs. To put themselves at ease and avoid taking the risk, many people fool themselves into believing everything will all work out someday by itself.
• Misunderstanding and lack of trust. People resist change when they do not understand its implications and perceive that it might cost them much more than they gain. Such situations often occur when trust is lacking between the person initiating the change and the employees.2
• Inertia. All organizations suffer from inertia to some degree and try to maintain status quo. Change requires effort, oftentimes, a significant one. So, don't underestimate the power of fatigue and burnout.


RESPONDING TO UNEXPECTED RESISTANCE:
What happens when you are in the middle of a conversation or meeting and someone speaks out against the change?

Pause
The natural tendency of many people is to respond immediately, perhaps butting in or cutting the other person short. The voice may be authoritarian and tinged with anger.
But think how this appears to other people? The message being sent is 'public disagreement is not allowed'. A likely effect is that the person resisting now has the sympathy of others (and may recruit the others to their cause). It is also very likely that the resistance will just go underground.
So the very first thing is to bite your lip, hold your tongue and count to three. Take a moment to pause and assess the situation. What are others doing? Is the person speaking cautious or bold? What does the body language tell you?

Listen
The next step is to listen carefully not only to what they are saying but also to how they are saying it. Listen for the deeper messages between the lines. Listen to their fears, hopes and ambitions. Hear the tensions and emotions. Notice how they are coping.
You can also draw out further information, tipping the bucket to ensure you have the whole story. Use appropriate questioning techniques to learn more.

Empathize
Make your initial response one that empathizes with their position. Show first that you understand (even though you may not agree) and respect their right to voice an honest opinion.
This and other previous action will have won you many friends -- perhaps even the person in question who may have been expecting you to resist their resistance (which is just what it would be) and is preparing for a fight. When people expect a fight and find only concern, the surprise is likely to change their opinion.

Think
Before you open your mouth, think hard about what you are going to say and how you are going to say it. Done wrong, a response will show your empathy to be false and may cause a bitter backlash.
Respond
Respond in a way that offers the other person a dignified way out. Seek win-win. Use their language. Reframe their position to show a bigger picture.


COMMUNICATION GAP
Part of an Information Planning is the communication; it is often define as a process of transferring information from one entity to another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and a receiver. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. Now let’s define Communication gap; it is define as a state that occurs when what is being said is not been communicated to the addressee properly and completely. There can be many causes of communication gap depending on where it exists. Actually Communication gap is the biggest hurdle in achieving the organizational goal and does not help at all in achievement of organizational goal. Communication gap in an organization means that the goals and objectives that are set by the top management are either not communicated to the employees of the organization at all levels or if communicated they are not been understood properly by the employees. This can be because of improper communication channels, unrealistic goals, inappropriate language etc.

Communication gap is a state that occurs when what is being said is not been communicated to the addressee properly and completely. There can be many causes of communication gap depending on where it exists. Actually Communication gap is the biggest hurdle in achieving the organizational goal and does not help at all in achievement of organizational goal. Communication gap in an organization means that the goals and objectives that are set by the top management are either not communicated to the employees of the organization at all levels or if communicated they are not been understood properly by the employees. This can be because of improper communication channels, unrealistic goals, inappropriate language etc.

Bridging the gap is commonly the best answer for communication gap. There are many ways to bridge the gaps especially in IT communication. These include:

• Find help to assess the situation. Get an outside, third-party to conduct an assessment of IT service performance with your business executives. The assessment team can interview your key executives to provide a complete evaluation and gap analysis of your current process capability against the IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL), which is a comprehensive documentation of best practices within the framework of IT Service Management (ITSM), including the provision, support, and management of effective IT services. You can’t do this as well as an outsider with no vested interest in the outcome, plus the business people will be more open because their complaints will not be directly attributed.

• Understand that perception is reality. You might view some of the feedback as unfair. IT departments moan they are over-worked and under-funded. They lament that executives understand marketing and finance but haven’t got a clue when it comes to computers. “Those people,” the complaints go, “just think of us as techies and nerds who want more expensive technology toys that increase overhead.” You need to prove them wrong.

• Manage expectations. You need to measure the communications gap and then work to close the gap. You can complain about this being a classic no-win situation, or you can take charge of managing the expectations of IT department success within the organization. Kindly explain to IT users upfront how long things take or cost.

• Open the lines of communication. The solution is not sweet talking the C-suite (“Nice tie, Mr. Bigley!”), but more consistent delivery of business value and better communication of that value. Don’t wait for the business people to invite you to lunch, take them out for a meal. Breaking bread is a powerful tool. Unfortunately, good work doesn’t stand on its own — it needs to be explained and shared with others.

• No more geek speak. Transform communications from IT jargon and alphabet soup into the language of business. Quit trying to teach them the language of IT. Instead, become bilingual so you can speak IT and business lingo like balanced scorecards and Six Sigma.
There are actually hundreds of ways how to bridge the gap, we just need to be specific with our communication tools especially if we are in the field of Information Technology, wherein not all people within your environment or organization is aware with the activities related to the field.

HOW TO STAY POSITIVE DESPITE ALL THE NEGATIVE VIBES

1. Be Grateful
Even if it seems everything is going wrong, there are things that are going right. Every day, write down all the things you are grateful for having happened to you today. Be descriptive of each item. Feel the joy those things bring you. Even if it's something really small like your car started this morning. Be grateful for it. This will help you to stay focused on the positive.

2. Look for the Silver Linings
Sometimes events that initially look bad turn out to be really good things in the end. I can't remember the saying but it was something like every black cloud has a silver lining. Here's an example, maybe you need to look for a new job because your company is downsizing. If you look for the silver lining in that, you can see that it's making you leave a job you didn't like that much anyway. You can now find that job that you really want to do or pursue a lifelong dream or even just take some time off to enjoy life before going back to find another job. By looking for the silver lining then bad things can actually become really good things.

3. Often the Greatest Doubts Occur Just Before a Breakthrough
This is a quote by Lama Surya Das. If you can think of your difficulties as being necessary to make a breakthrough to the new life you want to lead, it will make it easier. You're breaking free of your old life on the way to your new, more exciting life.

4. Discouragement is Just a Trick
Here’s a quote I really like about not letting yourself get discouraged.
"Discouragement is a negative emotion with more than one trick up its dark sleeve. It tricks you into mentally or emotionally dwelling in the very place you want to leave. Drop all such sorrow permanently by daring to see through this deception of the unconscious mind. You have a destination far beyond where you find yourself standing today" - Guy Finley
Keep this in mind as you continue to take steps towards your goals. You do have a destination far beyond where you are today.

5. Take a Break Sometimes
Forget about your problems and just go out and do something fun. Go to a movie, go out with some fun, positive thinking friends, go to a play, go for a bike ride, just do something. Get out and just enjoy yourself for a little bit. Sometimes, we just get so wrapped up in our problems that we forget to have fun. Taking a break will re-energize you and you may find that things aren't as bad as you thought.

So, there's at least 7 things you can do to help you remain in a positive frame of mind when your life seems to be falling apart. I hope it helps. I also want to say, good for you in recognizing the need to stay positive when it can be easier to just go with the negative flow. It shows you are on the right path and you will make it through your current situation with flying colours. Hang in there. This will pass and you will soon be experiencing your new, more positive life.

6. Look at the Big Picture and Focus
Decide on what direction you want your life to head. Think about what areas you want to explore, what experiences you want to feel, what do you want to accomplish in your life? What kind of person do you want to be? Then start taking steps towards those goals. Even if it’s just tiny steps every day, stay focused on where you want to go, and keep moving forwards. Then the little things you’re going through right now won’t matter as much because you have an exciting new direction to focus on instead.

7. Keep Reading Inspirational Articles and Maybe Join a Forum
If you keep reading inspirational articles and books, it will motivate you to stay positive. You will see that everyone goes through rough patches but that they do make it through. It will be worth it in the end. Also, there are some good forums you can join where even just reading the other posts can motivate you to stay positive. Or, if you want to make a posting, you can gain support from others as well. Who knows, you may even be able to answer some one else’s post and help them out too.


REFERENCES:
http://fitzvillafuerte.com/things-to-do-when-dealing-with-frustration.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration
http://www.life-with-confidence.com/frustration.html
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/rationale_resistance.htm
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/change_resistance.html
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/unexpected_resistance.htm
http://www.microsoft.com/smallbusiness/resources/management/leadership-training/women-vs-men-6-tips-for-bridging-the-communication-gap.aspx#tipsforbridgingthecommunicationgap
http://www.life-with-confidence.com/how-to-stay-positive.html

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)

First, let’s define FRUSTRATIONS. As wikipedia stated, it is a common response to opposition, it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations.
The emotion you’re feeling is “Frustration”.

With a capital “F”. Maybe even add in some anger because you’ve been working really hard towards your goal or on a project and it just isn’t working. Or you feel like you’re stuck in a dead-end job and can’t find another one. And you may not even really know why. All you know is that you seem to be stuck and no matter how hard you try, you don’t seem to get anywhere. You’re just spinning your wheels in the mud and all you feel is pure frustration. Sound familiar?
This is the point where a lot of people will just say, “I Quit” and give up. Before you do though, here’s 8 ways you can blast through any frustration:

1. Ask Yourself, “What Is Working in This Situation?”
Even if feels like nothing is working, look closely and you will probably find at least something that is going right. So, that’s good. You’ve found something that’s working. Now, how do you improve it? By asking this question, you’ve taken yourself out of the negative mindset of “it’s hopeless” and are back to focusing on the positive.
There's something that’s working and that will give you a clue of what direction to focus on. You may find that even if your previous issues come up you’ll be able to resolve them in the process of concentrating on your improvements.

2. Keep an Accomplishments Log
Write down everything you accomplish in a log. If you do it in a monthly format you will be able to see all that you have accomplished in just one month. You may be surprised by how much you have done. If you realize there’s not much on the list, it may open your eyes to the fact that you may be procrastinating more than working or that you are using too much of your energy going in too many directions and that you need to focus more. Hopefully, you will have lots of items on your list then you can see that even though it may not feel like it, you are moving forwards. The log will also help to highlight where you were the most effective and where you need to work harder.

3. Focus On What You Want to Happen
Go back to the big picture. What is the desired outcome? Sometimes, we get so wrapped up in one problem and trying to solve it that we forget what we were originally trying to accomplish. Try not to ask yourself, “Why did this happen?” Asking questions like that will keep you rooted in the past. It doesn’t offer a solution to the problem. The important thing is knowing the answer to the following two questions:
- What do you want to happen differently this time?”
- What do you need to do in order to get there?

4. Remove the “Noise” and Simplify
When you’re trying to solve a problem, you can get so wrapped up in trying to find a solution that you add unnecessary clutter, noise, and tasks to a project because you thought they “might” be a solution.
Working on this website, I get bombarded by offer after offer of “easy ways to run your website”, “get more traffic”, “make more money” etc. They’re just noise though and usually a waste of my time even reading them. These people are just trying to make money off of me. They have no interest in whether I succeed or not. When people are frustrated by how slow the hard work process is taking, they get tempted by these “here’s what you’ve been missing” and “I’ll make it easy for you” offers. Usually, it ends up that if you do get tempted by the offers you discover 6 months down the road that if you had just stuck with your first plan and just kept working at it, you’d be a lot further ahead by now. Not to mention richer from not having spent money on the Get Rich Quick schemes. Believe in yourself. Simplify and go back to the basics. Determine what is really necessary and remove everything else. Anything that takes your time and effort that isn’t adding value, should be eliminated.

5. Multiple Solutions
You always have options. You just need to brainstorm and figure them out. Tell yourself you need to come up with 8 possible options to what you’re dealing with. Just knowing that you have lots of options will help to make you feel better. You won’t feel like you are trapped in one negative situation. From your list, figure out the best direction and go for it.

6. Take Action
When you get into serious frustration with a problem, you tend not to want to work on it anymore. It’s hard, it’s frustrating, and you’re not getting anywhere. So, anything to avoid having to be in that situation may be far more attractive. Procrastination may start to set in. If you can keep taking steps forwards, you will probably make it past this temporary hump. As Thomas Edison said, “Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up” and “Surprises and reverses can serve as an incentive for great accomplishment.”
The other thing that can happen is that you start to spend a lot of time worrying. Worrying is a definite way of energy and does not move you in a forwards direction. Only taking action will. Once you start moving forwards again, you will most likely find that you worried for no reason.

7. Visualize a Positive Outcome to the Situation
A lot of times you can get stuck on focusing on what you don’t want to happen or fearing the absolute worst thing that could happen. The top athletes of the world will imagine themselves competing flawlessly over and over again. There is no room for failure in their minds. This is what you need to focus on as well. See yourself achieving your desired outcome. What will it look like? What will it feel like? What will you say? How will you feel? Take the time to visualize it and really feel it. It will inspire you to keep moving forwards.

8. Stay Positive
Things are usually not as bad as they first appear. Sometimes, things seem much worse simply because we’re tired or mentally drained. Taking a break and remembering to keep your sense of humour can also help. This time of frustration will pass. A positive mind is far more open to solutions and answers than a negative one that thinks it’s just “hopeless” and thinks “what’s the use?” A closed mind will not be able to see the possible solutions when they do come along. Stay positive.
As with any problem, the solution is to figure out what your options are, decide on a plan, focus, and then take action. By using the above 8 steps, you should find that you’re running into fewer problems and feeling less frustration. Instead, you may find that you’re running into opportunities and you know exactly how to take advantage of them.


Vadim Kotelnikov, founder and author of Ten3 Business eCoach from which I gathered some helpful facts about change management, enumerated the following main reasons in resistance to change in the workplace:

Fear of the unknown. Workers may feel hesitant of the new change that will happen for they do not know what may take place next. Sometimes, refusing to go along with it will reduce anxiety.


Fear of failure. In the current situation, employees may have already found or developed the skills and abilities their work required. But thinking about the change, they might be afraid to accept it for fear that it may call for new skills and abilities that they may not be able to give.

Disagreement with the need for change. This is true in the case of managers and associates. They may argue with each other that the new direction is a wrong direction.

Losing something of value. Workers sometimes determine how they would become in the future when the change will be implemented. They tend to weigh down things circumstances and as to how they will be affected. If they think they will end up losing, they will resist the change.

Leaving a comfort zone. A lot of times we tend to be scared of what awaits us in the upcoming times especially if a change requires us to leave our comfort zones. Maybe in the future if the changes will take effect it would force us to take risks.

False beliefs. Employees sometimes tend to believe into false beliefs that someday everything will work out fine that is why they avoid taking the risks that may be brought by the change and continue working their easy way.

Misunderstanding and lack of trust. In this case, the employer-employee relationship takes deep concern. When workers do not fully know and understand the proposition of the change, they may perceive that it will cost them more than they can gain. This is also true if workers do not have enough trust with their employer or the one initiating the change.

Moreover, there are some key points and common things people tell themselves justifying their actions in resisting change. Most people want to stay where they are because they think their needs are already met in the workplace or the situation where they are currently in; that they have invested heavily there, and/or they think they are in the middle of something important. A lot of times employees do not want to change because they think the destination looks worse than where they currently are; there is nothing that attracts them forward; they do not know which way to move; the journey looks painful or somehow bad or wrong; and they do not trust those who are asking them to change. People also tend to refuse to change and say to themselves that they are not going to change because they think they are able to ignore the change and have the power to obstruct it.

There are early signs of resistance one might find out especially when a change is being introduced. You would probably hear some gossips and grumbling or complaints which may be on the way to attempts for organizing resistance. They could also test the management on what happens when they resist change like not turning up to a meeting or openly challenge a decision.

Resistance may also be in cases of individual or collective action. Individually, people who have lower or lesser power can take passive refusals or action while those with more power could challenge and even criticize.

The visibility of resistance may be covert or overt. Covert resistance is being done in a manner as if workers are not resisting while overt resistance does not try to hide so they could take forms as open argument, refusal or attack.

Activity of resistance may also take in passive or active form. Passive resistance occurs where people do not take specific actions like sitting in the meeting and may appear to agree with the change. On the other hand, active resistance occurs where people are taking specific and deliberate action to resist the change. It may be overt, with such as public statements and acts of resistance, and it may be covert, such as mobilizing others to create an underground resistance movement.

Resistance should at least be addressed so not to make frustrations on the persons involved. There are various ways in which resistance can be dealt with. Changingminds.org has identified these several steps to handle resistance:

Facilitation. Basically, this approach is the safe way to deal with your resisting workers, I could say. In this type of handling resistance, the management is making steps to work with the workers in such a way that the employees feel that they are achieving their goals that somehow also reach the goals of the project. As we know, unwilling or opposing workers think that they are exerting much effort just to adjust with the new project and this might change the usual and comfortable way they are working in the environment they have used to. Collaborating with them might help a lot since when workers feel that you are working with them, they will be happy to be working with you.

Education. Well, workers sometimes react violently (or less) when they think of something else as a consequence of the sudden change that you will impose. But they may end up supporting or coming around if they have a good knowledge and clear understanding why there is a need for a change. They might also realize the urgency of the change if they know what is that for and what is needed of them. Typically, educating them will help in eliminating doubts and fears that people have at the back of their minds.

Involvement. In whichever job you will be doing, it could best be done if your heart is at it. Similarly, workers need to feel the sense of being engaged in their work not just physically and mentally or intellectually but also emotionally. It is difficult for people to persuade them to get to work if they do not do it heartily. Getting them involved is one of the best methods to bring them in. somehow they need to justify their involvement to themselves and convince themselves that it is the best thing to do.

Negotiation. Well, this kind of dealing with resistance is something which can be done by the management when the other persons are hard to be convinced or persuaded. This may be made by sitting with the unwilling party, talk with them, and ask them what they really are looking for. Management should find out what they want and what they will never accept. Perhaps, after determining these, you can work out a possible solution which is agreed mutually, of course, and works just for them and just for you.

Manipulation. This may be a harsher kind of pace in coping with resistance. Manipulation is controlling a person’s environment such that they are shaped by what is around them. This can only be a considerable thing to do when it is necessary to change in the short term and you have tried all other possible solutions. Manipulation approach is morally questionable and might lead to a dangerous backslash if the workers sense what you are doing. Better think before acting.

Coercion. An even more intense approach than manipulation, coercion (overt) forces the opposing workers to give in. An example is that, when you sit them down and make overt (or publicly open) threats, such as if they do not abide by or conform to what they should do they will lose their jobs, possibly in a humiliating and public sacking. However, this approach should only be done when speed is of the essence or when the persons themselves have taken to public and damaging actions.
Another major cause of frustration that our interviewers identified is more on the employer - employee relationship. They said that employees are also highly aware of how they are being treated by their bosses. Definitely, workers do not like that they are being treated small even by their co-workers.

There are cases when employees have nothing to do in particular at some point in time in the office. But even if they are just sitting and appear like doing nothing, they are being paid because they are working. It does not necessarily mean that if they are not doing any work they should be treated like they are not useful. There may be times when a pilot store needs somebody in a particular job and it happens that no one in the office is available for that job, the store can request for assistance from other branches that has a worker who is available to get the job done. So we can see here that a certain employee has significance. Every person’s job has a purpose.

Now, as stated by Mr. Gemrald that there are two frequently experienced causes of frustrations of IS professional and users while working on an IS plan. Let’s discuss it one by one.


Resistant to changes

Mr. Gemrald is working on the automation of manual systems of the HR Department of the company and developing the enterprise systems for the company, aside form being the Head of office he is also working as the project manager of the MIS department and the Developer. According to him, in any organization you cannot expect that all are adaptive to changes which he consider that as one of the frustrations as an IT professional. It is really hard to purse IS plans when the users themselves resist for changes, that’s the challenging part of being a project manager. You cannot please everyone, he added.

Some sources have identified the reasons of an individual being resistant to changes – organizational and technological change. These include the following:

• THE RISK OF CHANGE IS SEEN AS GREATER THAN THE RISK OF STANDING STILL. Making a change requires a kind of leap of faith: you decide to move in the direction of the unknown on the promise that something will be better for you. But you have no proof. Taking that leap of faith is risky, and people will only take active steps toward the unknown if they genuinely believe – and perhaps more importantly, feel – that the risks of standing still are greater than those of moving forward in a new direction. Making a change is all about managing risk. If you are making the case for change, be sure to set out in stark, truthful terms why you believe the risk situation favors change. Use numbers whenever you can, because we in the West pay attention to numbers. At the very least, they get our attention, and then when the rational mind is engaged, the emotional mind (which is typically most decisive) can begin to grapple with the prospect of change. But if you only sell your idea of change based on idealistic, unseen promises of reward, you won’t be nearly as effective in moving people to action

• PEOPLE HAVE NO ROLE MODELS FOR THE NEW ACTIVITY. Never underestimate the power of observational learning. If you see yourself as a change agent, you probably are something of a dreamer, someone who uses the imagination to create new possibilities that do not currently exist. Well, most people don’t operate that way. It’s great to be a visionary, but communicating a vision is not enough. Get some people on board with your idea, so that you or they can demonstrate how the new way can work. Operationally, this can mean setting up effective pilot programs that model a change and work out the kinks before taking your innovation “on the road.” For most people, seeing is believing. Less rhetoric and more demonstration can go a long way toward overcoming resistance, changing people’s objections from the “It can’t be done!” variety to the “How can we get it done?” category.

• PEOPLE FEAR THEY LACK THE COMPETENCE TO CHANGE. This is a fear people will seldom admit. But sometimes, change in organizations necessitates changes in skills, and some people will feel that they won’t be able to make the transition very well. They don’t think they, as individuals, can do it. The hard part is that some of them may be right. But in many cases, their fears will be unfounded, and that’s why part of moving people toward change requires you to be an effective motivator. Even more, a successful change campaign includes effective new training programs, typically staged from the broad to the specific. By this I mean that initial events should be town-hall type information events, presenting the rationale and plan for change, specifying the next steps, outlining future communications channels for questions, etc., and specifying how people will learn the specifics of what will be required of them, from whom, and when. Then, training programs must be implemented and evaluated over time. In this way, you can minimize the initial fear of a lack of personal competence for change by showing how people will be brought to competence throughout the change process. Then you have to deliver.

• PEOPLE HAVE A HEALTHY SKEPTICISM AND WANT TO BE SURE NEW IDEAS ARE SOUND. It’s important to remember that few worthwhile changes are conceived in their final, best form at the outset. Healthy skeptics perform an important social function: to vet the change idea or process so that it can be improved upon along the road to becoming reality. So listen to your skeptics, and pay attention, because some percentage of what they have to say will prompt genuine improvements to your change idea (even if some of the criticism you will hear will be based more on fear and anger than substance).

• PEOPLE FEAR HIDDEN AGENDAS AMONG WOULD-BE REFORMERS. Let’s face it, reformers can be a motley lot. Not all are to be trusted. Perhaps even more frightening, some of the worst atrocities modern history has known were begun by earnest people who really believed they knew what was best for everyone else. Reformers, as a group, share a blemished past . . . And so, you can hardly blame those you might seek to move toward change for mistrusting your motives, or for thinking you have another agenda to follow shortly. If you seek to promote change in an organization, not only can you expect to encounter resentment for upsetting the established order and for thinking you know better than everyone else, but you may also be suspected of wanted to increase your own power, or even eliminate potential opposition through later stages of change.

• PEOPLE FEEL THE PROPOSED CHANGE THREATENS THEIR NOTIONS OF THEMSELVES. Sometimes change on the job gets right to a person’s sense of identity. When a factory worker begins to do less with her hands and more with the monitoring of automated instruments, she may lose her sense of herself as a craftsperson, and may genuinely feel that the very things that attracted her to the work in the first place have been lost. I saw this among many medical people and psychologists during my graduate training, as the structures of medical reimbursement in this country changed in favor of the insurance companies, HMO’s and managed care organizations. Medical professionals felt they had less say in the treatment of their patients, and felt answerable to less well trained people in the insurance companies to approve treatments the doctors felt were necessary. And so, the doctors felt they had lost control of their profession, and lost the ability to do what they thought best for patients.

• PEOPLE ANTICIPATE A LOSS OF STATUS OR QUALITY OF LIFE. Real change reshuffles the deck a bit. Reshuffling the deck can bring winners . . . and losers. Some people, most likely, will gain in status, job security, quality of life, etc. with the proposed change, and some will likely lose a bit. Change does not have to be a zero sum game, and change can (and should) bring more advantage to more people than disadvantage. But we all live in the real world, and let’s face it – if there were no obstacles (read: people and their interests) aligned against change, then special efforts to promote change would be unnecessary.

• PEOPLE GENUINELY BELIEVE THAT THE PROPOSED CHANGE IS A BAD IDEA. The truth is, sometimes someone’s (even – gasp! – my) idea of change is just not a good idea. Sometimes people are not being recalcitrant, or afraid, or muddle-headed, or nasty, or foolish when they resist. They just see that we’re wrong. And even if we’re not all wrong, but only half wrong, or even if we’re right, it’s important not to ignore when people have genuine, rational reservations or objections.

Now, in any Information System Planning, support of both parties (developer and the client) is very vital on the process of the planning. A developer cannot pursue with his/her goals when the client is not doing his/her part in the planning. If there is planning, these two components is interdependent with each other. Support is essential to a successful project. Projects can fail because of lack of support, because some people in an organization hasn't actively involved key decision makers in determining project strategy and direction. Anybody who is within the organization should keep support throughout the lifecycle of their project and improving project quality down the line. IS professionals often faced with the challenge of dealing to people who are very resistant to organizational change. We all know that we are in fast-paced environment and so changes should be expected and in turn we should have to deal these changes accordingly. However, not all people in an organization is flexible enough to adapt the change, that’s why IS professional should have the ability to effectively influence others, and it is often the solution to achieve desired results. This skill is used daily in meetings and business discussions and when constructing and communicating the business case for a new initiative.


There are six externalities that bring about change. They are regulation, capital markets, competition, technology, globalization and customers. When any of these external contexts changes radically and the company is either unable or unwilling to change, it often results in failure. Company success is very much like human behavior—a result of nature and nurture. But managers refuse to say that they were blessed from above, and so they take all the credit for themselves. They succeed as long as the environment doesn’t change. The underlying theory is that many people in business succeed by accident and not by plan. But, unfortunately, people end up believing what they will succeed forever, and they become resistant to change. They get locked into one paradigm or one way of life. Or in other words, people tend to forget that the environment they are in is changing, that’s why these people never think of facing the change for they got so used to something being a certain way in their lives that they don't want it to change and if they will do will affect their lives as they believed.
SOURCES OF ORGANISATIONAL RESISTANCE :

Factor built in the organizational system also lead to resistance to change. It has been observed that organizations are conservative and are therefore slow to change.

1. Inertia of a structure: A number of built-in mechanisms provide stability to organizations. Every organization has got its own systems, processes, policies, and procedures, which ought to be followed for uniformity and formalization of the process. Consequently any change in the structural aspects has cascading effect on other related systems and processes. This creates a hurdle in introducing organizational change. In organizations where structural changes are introduced, it takes long for people to accept and assimilate the structural change.

2. Threat to power dynamics: Structural change with ensuing changes in decision-making pattern can destabilize power relationships established over a period of time. Change in decision-making process from centralize decision making process to participative or democratic decision-making process form centralized decision-making can threaten managers affected by it.

3. Group pressure : Group norms evolved by an organization over the years become a bottleneck in bringing about change. It is common observation that a single member of a group accepts change suggested by management willingly. However, his group affiliation with a union does not allow him to do so. Therefore, he is likely to resists change.

4. Blinkered view of change : Any organization consists of four elements namely task, structure, technology, and people. Focus on any one of the elements of the organization will bring about corresponding change in other elements as well. Therefore, change can not have lopsided and limited perspective.

SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCE

1. Lack of knowledge : in situations when people do not have sufficient knowledge about the cause and effects of change they feel anxious and stressed and consequently resist to change. Employees also resists change because it threaten their need for security ,self-esteem, competence, status and social interaction. Irrespective ofthe nature of change it has been found that employees make efforts to protect them from effect of change and the reaction may range from simple complaint and grievances to passive resistance, sabotage, absenteeism an slowing down of work. Resistance to change takes place irrespective of the level of employee in the organization- whether one is white collar or a blue-collar worker.

However, when the change become inevitable, the employees try to offset the facts of change by desire for now learning / experiences and for the rewards that may come with change. In that case changes are requested and sought for by employees. Change reaction effects are seen in feeling of insecurity and the change of working situations or job. Change can have cascading effect when one person receives promotion; it leads to promotion of ten other people’s at lower levels. This is indicative of change reaction effects of a single precipitating event.

2. Selective perception : when changes are introduced employees are more concerned about how it would affect the entire organization. This is often observed when mode of payment is changed or reorganization is done. Also individuals assess the compatibility of the change with their belief and value systems.

3. Fear of Uncertainty : Uncertainty about the effect of change personally and professionally is another reason for individual resistance. The threat perceived by the employee may be imaginary, intended or unintended, big or small, direct or indirect. A number of fears like loss of status, power, income and uncertainty about their ability to cope with work-demand come in the way of accepting the change.

4. Aversion to Risk : change threatens those who like comfort of familiar. Change often requires personal transition where in familiar has to be destabilized. It calls for giving up the status quo, unlearning or unfreezing the person to integrate and absorb new learning. It is interesting that a number of individuals consider change to bring new opportunities. Research findings also support the view that positive approach to change results in opportunities for individuals during the transition period.

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO OVER COME THE REGISTANCE :

1. Counseling: counseling has been found to be very effective in reducing individual resistance. Individual resistance occurs because of anxieties and fears and by letting people talk through their problems and anxieties can help them come to terms with change. This techniques is used on one-to-one and also in formal communication system with the whole team.

2. Force-field analysis : this technique provides an assessment of any change situation and presents a balance between the driving forces and the resisting forces. The participants are advised by the change agent to identify these forces. While identifying the restraining forces the group develops insight about ways of handling them. In a number of organizations this technique is used effectively to create a shared change processes for thinking through specific changes.

3. Commitment Charting : in any change there will be people who gain and others who lose. Therefore, in order to get the commitment of the people who are likely to loose, it is important to handle them with care, as they will be sensitive to any action. For a change to succeed it is important to have a critical mass and also to minimize the pain it causes to the affected. In order to do that a chart is prepared listing the names of key players and their commitment level to the change. The chart indicates the status of the people who have commitment at present and whose commitment needs to be ensured for change to be successful. Also the people who have no commitment need to be focused for gaining commitment.

In this regard our organization follows the ways as suggested by Watson (1969) to reduce the resistance. These relate to ownership of change, nature of change and the process of changing.

Ownership : resistance is likely to be low if the change is perceived as being the need of and suggested (sense of belongingness ) by those affected by it. And when it has the top management support.

Nature of Change : Resistance is reduced by joint and agreed diagnosis of the problems and burdens, conforming to the core values of the group, offering new and interesting experience to the group, and does not threaten autonomy and security.

Change process : Resistance is reduced by joint and agreed diagnosis of the problem, consensus on the board design of change, listening to “objections’(and learning from them), periodical review and feedback, development of high interpersonal trust and cohesive teams and openness to revision.

However, even if frustration would exist to everyone, this would not mean that we cannot avoid or block this existence. How to deal this issue?

1. Ask Yourself, “What Is Working in This Situation?”
Even if feels like nothing is working, look closely and you will probably find at least something that is going right. So, that’s good. You’ve found something that’s working. Now, how do you improve it? By asking this question, you’ve taken yourself out of the negative mindset of “it’s hopeless” and are back to focusing on the positive.

2. Keep an Accomplishments Log
Write down everything you accomplish in a log. If you do it in a monthly format you will be able to see all that you have accomplished in just one month. You may be surprised by how much you have done. If you realize there’s not much on the list, it may open your eyes to the fact that you may be procrastinating more than working or that you are using too much of your energy going in too many directions and that you need to focus more.

3. Multiple Solutions
You always have options. You just need to brainstorm and figure them out. Tell yourself you need to come up with 8 possible options to what you’re dealing with. Just knowing that you have lots of options will help to make you feel better. You won’t feel like you are trapped in one negative situation. From your list, figure out the best direction and go for it.

4. Stay Positive
Things are usually not as bad as they first appear. Sometimes, things seem much worse simply because we’re tired or mentally drained. Taking a break and remembering to keep your sense of humour can also help. This time of frustration will pass.

In the making and working of an information system plan, there are a lot of scenario where IS professionals find trouble in dealing not with the subject of matter but the people who are actually working with the planning process. Some superiors and subordinates and colleagues provide valid reasons why they are also treated as causes of frustrations. Frustration is an emotion that occurs in situations where a person is blocked from reaching a desired outcome. Frustration is experienced whenever the results (goals) you are expecting do not seem to fit the effort and action you are applying. Frustration will occur whenever your actions are producing less and fewer results than you think they should. Common responses to frustrations include anger, giving up, stress, depression, and other reactions. Although this is one psychological aspect, this will surely have an effect especially in doing something of high value and complexity like information systems planning. If this would not be further addressed appropriately, chances are harmonious relationships and working conditions with the human resources (these are most likely be affected), would result in failed information system plan


REFERENCES:
http://www.akamarketing.com/communicating-with-clients.html
http://www.advancinginsights.com/resistant-to-change
http://www.information-management.com/issues/19980301/697-1.html
http://www.life-with-confidence.com/frustration.html
http://charmainespeaksup.blogspot.com/2010/03/frequent-frustrations-of-is.html
http://arielserenado.blogspot.com/p/mis-2.html

All businesses share one common asset, regardless of the type of business. It does not matter if they manufacture goods or provide services. It is a vital part of any business entity, whether a sole proprietorship or a multinational corporation. That common asset is information.
Information enables us to determine the need to create new products and services. Information tells us to move into new markets or to withdraw from other markets. Without information, the goods do not get made, the orders are not placed, the materials are not procured, the shipments are not delivered, the customers are not billed, and the business cannot survive.
But information has far lesser impact when presented as raw data. In order to maximize the value of information, it must be captured, analyzed, quantified, compiled, manipulated, made accessible, and shared. In order to accomplish those tasks, an information system (IS) must be designed, developed, administered, and maintained.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
An information system is a computer system that provides management and other personnel within an organization with up-to-date information regarding the organization's performance; for example, current inventory and sales. It usually is linked to a computer network, which is created by joining different computers together in order to share data and resources. It is designed to capture, transmit, store, retrieve, manipulate, and or display information used in one or more business processes. These systems output information in a form that is useable at all levels of the organization: strategic, tactical, and operational.
Systems that are specifically geared toward serving general, predictable management functions are sometimes called management information systems (MIS). A good example of an MIS report is the information that goes into an annual report created for the stockholders of a corporation (a scheduled report). The administration of an information system is typically the province of the MIS or information technology (IT) department within an organization.
Some applications have infringed on the familiar MIS landscape. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software and executive information systems (EIS) both provide packaged modules and programs that perform the same functions as traditional MIS, but with greater functionality, flexibility, and integration capabilities.
MAINFRAMES.
The original computerized information systems were based on mainframes. "Mainframe" is a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling computer. After the emergence of smaller mini-computer designs in the early 1970s, the traditional large machines were described as "mainframe computers," or simply mainframes. The term carries the connotation of a machine designed for batch rather than interactive use, though possibly with an interactive time-sharing operating system retrofitted onto it.
It has been conventional wisdom in most of the business community since the late 1980s that the mainframe architectural tradition is essentially dead, having been swamped by huge advances in integrated circuit design technology and low-cost personal computing. Despite this, mainframe sales in the United States enjoyed somewhat of a resurgence in the 1990s, as prices came down and as large organizations found they needed high-power computing resources more than ever. Supporters claim that mainframes still house 90 percent of the data major businesses rely on for mission-critical applications, attributing this to their superior performance, reliability, scalability, and security compared to microprocessors.
THE INTERNET.
The Internet has opened up further developments in information systems and the exchange of information via web-based e-mail, intranets, and extranets. These technologies allow for much faster data and information exchange and greater access for more users. Web-casting and videoconferencing allow for real-time information exchanges. Mobile computing technologies accessed by handheld devices, such as multi-functional mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and podcasting (via iPods), are offering further modes of communication.
INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN
AND ADMINISTRATION
The design of an information system is based on various factors. Cost is a major consideration, but there certainly are others to be taken into account, such as the number of users; the modularity of the system, or the ease with which new components can be integrated into the system, and the ease with which outdated or failed components can be replaced; the amount of information to be processed; the type of information to be processed; the computing power required to meet the varied needs of the organization; the anticipated functional life of the system and/or components; the ease of use for the people who will be using the system; and the requirements and compatibility of the applications that are to be run on the system.
There are different ways to construct an information system, based upon organizational requirements, both in the function aspect and the financial sense. Of course, the company needs to take into consideration that hardware that is purchased and assembled into a network will become outdated rather quickly. It is almost axiomatic that the technologies used in information systems steadily increase in power and versatility on a rapid time scale. Perhaps the trickiest part of designing an information system from a hardware standpoint is straddling the fine line between too much and not enough, while keeping an eye on the requirements that the future may impose.
Applying foresight when designing a system can bring substantial rewards in the future, when system components are easy to repair, replace, remove, or update without having to bring the whole information system to its knees. When an information system is rendered inaccessible or inoperative, the system is considered to be "down."
A primary function of the maintaining an information system is to minimize downtime, or hopefully, to eradicate downtime altogether. The costs created by a department, facility, organization, or workforce being idled by an inoperative system can become staggering in a short amount of time. The inconvenience to customers can cost the firm even more if sales are lost as a result, in addition to any added costs the customers might incur.
Another vital consideration regarding the design and creation of an information system is to determine which users have access to which information. The system should be configured to grant access to the different partitions of data and information by granting user-level permissions for access. A common method of administering system access rights is to create unique profiles for each user, with the appropriate user-level permissions that provide proper clearances.
Individual passwords can be used to delineate each user and their level of access rights, as well as identify the tasks performed by each user. Data regarding the performance of any user unit, whether individual, departmental, or organizational can also be collected, measured, and assessed through the user identification process.
The OSI seven-layer model attempts to provide a way of partitioning any computer network into independent modules from the lowest (physical/hardware) layer to the highest (application/program) layer. Many different specifications can exist at each of these layers.
A crucial aspect of administering information systems is maintaining communication between the IS staff, who have a technical perspective on situations, and the system users, who usually communicate their concerns or needs in more prosaic terminology. Getting the two sides to negotiate the language barriers can be difficult, but the burden of translation should fall upon the IS staff. A little patience and understanding can go a long way toward avoiding frustration on the part of both parties.
There is more to maintaining an information system than applying technical knowledge to hardware or software. IS professionals have to bridge the gap between technical issues and practicality for the users. The information system should also have a centralized body that functions to provide information, assistance, and services to the users of the system. These services will typically include telephone and electronic mail "help desk" type services for users, as well as direct contact between the users and IS personnel.
INFORMATION SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
DOCUMENT AND RECORD MANAGEMENT.
Document and record management may well be the most crucial aspect of any information system. Some examples of types of information maintained in these systems would be accounting, financial, manufacturing, marketing, and human resources. An information system can serve as a library. When properly collected, organized, and indexed in accordance with the requirements of the organization, its stored data becomes accessible to those who need the information.
The location and retrieval of archived information can be a direct and logical process, if careful planning is employed during the design of the system. Creating an outline of how the information should be organized and indexed can be a very valuable tool during the design phase of a system. A critical feature of any information system should be the ability to not only access and retrieve data, but also to keep the archived information as current as possible.
COLLABORATIVE TOOLS.
Collaborative tools can consist of software or hardware, and serve as a base for the sharing of data and information, both internally and externally. These tools allow the exchange of information between users, as well as the sharing of resources. As previously mentioned, real-time communication is also a possible function that can be enabled through the use of collaborative tools.
DATA MINING.
Data mining, or the process of analyzing empirical data, allows for the extrapolation of information. The extrapolated results are then used in forecasting and defining trends.
QUERY TOOLS.
Query tools allow the users to find the information needed to perform any specific function. The inability to easily create and execute functional queries is a common weak link in many information systems. A significant cause of that inability, as noted earlier, can be the communication difficulties between a management information systems department and the system users.
Another critical issue toward ensuring successful navigation of the varied information levels and partitions is the compatibility factor between knowledge bases. For maximum effectiveness, the system administrator should ascertain that the varied collection, retrieval, and analysis levels of the system either operate on a common platform, or can export the data to a common platform. Although much the same as query tools in principle, intelligent agents allow the customization of the information flow through sorting and filtering to suit the individual needs of the users. The primary difference between query tools and intelligent agents is that query tools allow the sorting and filtering processes to be employed to the specifications of management and the system administrators, and intelligent agents allow the information flow to be defined in accord with the needs of the user.
KEY POINTS
Managers should keep in mind the following advice in order to get the most out of an information system:
• Use the available hardware and software technologies to support the business. If the information system does not support quality and productivity, then it is misused.
• Use the available technologies to create and facilitate the flow of communication within your organization and, if feasible, outside of it as well. Collaboration and flexibility are the key advantages offered for all involved parties. Make the most of those advantages.
• Determine if any strategic advantages are to be gained by use of your information system, such as in the areas of order placement, shipment tracking, order fulfillment, market forecasting, just-in-time supply, or regular inventory. If you can gain any sort of advantage by virtue of the use of your information system, use it.
• Use the quantification opportunities presented by your information system to measure, analyze, and benchmark the performances of an individual, department, division, plant, or entire organization.
An information system is more than hardware or software. The most integral and important components of the system are the people who design it, maintain it, and use it. While the overall system must meet various needs in terms of power and performance, it must also be usable for the organization's personnel. If the operation of day-to-day tasks is too daunting for the workforce, then even the most humble of aspirations for the system will go unrealized.
A company will likely have a staff entrusted with the overall operation and maintenance of the system and that staff will be able to make the system perform in the manner expected of it. Pairing the information systems department with a training department can create a synergistic solution to the quandary of how to get non-technical staff to perform technical tasks. Oft times, the individuals staffing an information systems department will be as technical in their orientation as the operative staff is non-technical in theirs. This creates a language barrier between the two factions, but the communication level between them may be the most important exchange of information within the organization. Nomenclature out of context becomes little more than insular buzzwords.
If a company does not have a formal training department, the presence of staff members with a natural inclination to demonstrate and teach could mitigate a potentially disastrous situation. Management should find those employees who are most likely to adapt to the system and its operation. They should be taught how the system works and what it is supposed to do. Then they can share their knowledge with their fellow workers. There may not be a better way to bridge the natural chasm between the IS department and non-technical personnel. When the process of communicating information flows smoothly and can be used for enhancing and refining business operations, the organization and its customers will all profit.

Read more: Management Information Systems - strategy, organization, levels, system, examples, advantages, model, type, company, business, system, Information system design and administration, Information system functions, Key points http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-Information-Systems.html#ixzz0kDjbKABr


1. Communication Gap

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". Although there is such a thing as one-way communication, communication can be perceived better as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas (energy) towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information).[1]

Communication gap is a state that occurs when what is being said is not been communicated to the addressee properly and completely. There can be many causes of communication gap depending on where it exists. Actually Communication gap is the biggest hurdle in achieving the organizational goal and does not help at all in achievement of organizational goal. Communication gap in an organization means that the goals and objectives that are set by the top management are either not communicated to the employees of the organization at all levels or if communicated they are not been understood properly by the employees. This can be because of improper communication channels, unrealistic goals, inappropriate language etc.

2. Eagerness to Change

Change is something that presses us out of our comfort zone. It is destiny-filtered, heart grown, faith built. Change is inequitable; not a respecter of persons. Change is for the better or for the worst, depending on where you view it. Change has an adjustment period which varies on the individual. It is uncomfortable, for changing from one state to the next upsets our control over outcomes. Change has a ripping effect on those who won’t let go. Flex is the key. Even a roller coaster ride can be fun if you know when to lean and create new balance within the change. Change is needed when all the props and practices of the past no longer work. Change is not comforted by the statement ‘just hang in there’ but with the statement ‘you can make it’. We don’t grow in retreat, but through endurance. Change isn’t fixed by crying, worrying, or mental treadmilling. Change is won by victors not victims; and that choice is ours.
Change is awkward -- at first. Change is a muscle that develops to abundantly enjoy the dynamics of the life set before us. Change calls own strength beyond anyone of us. Change pushes you to do your personal best. Change draws out those poised for a new way. Change isn’t for chickens. Change does have casualties of those defeated. Change will cause us to churn or to learn. Change changes the speed of time. Time is so slow for the reluctant, and yet it is a whirlwind for those who embrace it. Change is more fun to do than to be done to. Change seeks a better place at the end and is complete when you realize you are different.
Change is measured by its impact on all who are connected to it. Change is charged when you are dissatisfied with where you are. Change doesn’t look for a resting-place; just the next launching point. Change is only a waste to those who don’t learn from it. Change happens in the heart before it is proclaimed by our works. Change chaps those moving slower than the change itself. If you can change before you have to change, there will be less pain. Change can flow or jerk, depending on our resistance to it. Change uses the power invested in the unseen to reinvent what is seen. Change is like driving in a fog – you can’t see very far, but you can make the whole trip that way.
Change is here to stay.
change must involve the people - change must not be imposed upon the people
Be wary of expressions like 'mindset change', and 'changing people's mindsets' or 'changing attitudes', because this language often indicates a tendency towards imposed or enforced change (theory x), and it implies strongly that the organization believes that its people currently have the 'wrong' mindset, which is never, ever, the case. If people are not approaching their tasks or the organization effectively, then the organization has the wrong mindset, not the people. Change such as new structures, policies, targets, acquisitions, disposals, re-locations, etc., all create new systems and environments, which need to be explained to people as early as possible, so that people's involvement in validating and refining the changes themselves can be obtained.

The largest growth in most economies is coming from 'information' industries. The success of such knowledge-based organisations lies in their information systems. Also, forced by technological change and globalisation of markets, many manufacturing industries are also placing increasing emphasis upon information systems. Information systems are more than just computer programs. Though information and communications technologies are playing an increasing role in meeting organisations’ information needs, an information system is a much more general concept. It refers to the wider systems of people, data and activities, both computer-based and manual, that effectively gather, process, store and disseminate organisations’ information.
Study Information Systems here:
Postgraduate opportunities in Information Systems at Department of Information Studies at University of Sheffield.
Information Systems not Computer Science
Information systems, as a discipline, focuses on exploring the interface between management, information science and computer science. Computer Science focuses on information technology: software. Information Systems mediates the two opposing worlds of human activity systems and information technology.
Career prospects in Information Systems
A recent survey by the Association for Computing Machinery established buoyancy in the IT jobs market, exceeding that of the market at the peak of the IT boom, six years ago. Also, throughout the current decade, salaries in this area have increased, year on year. Consequently, knowledge of the state of the art in information systems development, application and management is at a premium in the workplace. This knowledge can be deployed in a range of professional positions, including information systems consultancy, systems analysis and design, and information systems project management. There are also positions in research and education concerned with advanced studies in information systems.
What can you get from an Information Systems course?
The value of the information systems professional stems from a breadth of knowledge and skills. Requirements of an information system are to do with the people and organizations that the system must serve, as well as IT capabilities. Consequently, the field is a multidisciplinary one, which requires specialist knowledge of the computer world, the world of organisations and people for whom the system must process information, and the professional skills and knowledge to make the former work for the latter. Not least, the information systems professional will have communication and interpersonal skills, for example, needed to elicit those requirements and communicate analyses and designs to decision makers.
A graduate from an information system programme will have studied each of these aspects to acquire theoretical and practical knowledge which they will be able to apply confidently in organizations of all kinds. Reflecting the multidisciplinarity of the field, Information Systems degree programmes offer a carefully chosen mix of social, management and technical aspects, such as: information systems within the contexts of organisations, management and the information society; computing knowledge and skills in programming, computer architectures and networks; techniques for information systems analysis and design, including database design methods, and related professional and legal knowledge.
Study Information Systems here:
Postgraduate opportunities in Information Systems at Department of Information Studies at University of Sheffield.
After completing, graduates may go on to take up a specialist information systems management positions - such as information systems manager, IT manager, corporate IT administrator or information systems consultant, to name but a few possibilities - but more broadly you will gain a solid foundation for taking up a variety of work roles in this rapidly changing society.
Various Advantages of Information Management Systems
When information systems are designed to provide information needed for effective decision making by managers, they are called management information systems. MIS is a formal system for providing management with accurate and timely information necessary for decision making.
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The system provides information on the past, present and project future and on relevant events inside and outside the organization . It may be defined as a planned and integrated system for gathering relevant data, converting it in to right information and supplying the same to the concerned executives. The main purpose of MIS is to provide the right information to the right people at the right time.

The Concept of management information systems originated in the 1960s and become the byword of almost all attempts to relate computer technology and systems to data processing in business . During the early 1960s , it became evident that the computer was being applied to the solution of business problem in a piecemeal fashion, focusing almost entirely on the computerization of clerical and record – keeping tasks. The concepts of management information systems was developed to counteract such in efficient development and in effective use of the computer. The MIS concepts is vital to efficient and effective computer use in business of two major reasons:

• It serves as a systems framework for organizing business computer applications. Business applications of computers should be viewed as interrelated and integrated computer – based information systems and not as independent data processing job .

• In emphasizes the management orientation of electronics information processing in business . The primary goal of computer based information systems should be the processing of data generated by business operations.
A management information system is an integrated man – machine systems that provides information to support the planning and control function of manager in an organization .
• The out put of an MIS is information that sub serves managerial functions. When a system provides information to persons who are not managers, then it will not be considered as part of an MIS . For .example , an organization often process a lot of data which it is required by law to furnish to various government regulatory agencies. Such a system, while it may have interfaces with an MIS, would not be a part of it, Instances of such systems are salary disclosures and excise duty statements. By the same token to sophisticated computer – aided design system for engineering purposes would also not be a part of an MIS.

• Generally, MIS deals with information that is systematically and routinely collected in accordance with a well-defined set of rules. Thus, and MIS is a part of the formal information network in an organization. Information that has major managerial planning significance is sometimes collected at golf courses. Such information is not part of MIS, how ever, one- shot market research data collected to gauge the potential of a new product does not come with in the scope of an MIS by our definition because although such information may be very systematically collected it is not collected on a regular basis.

• Normally, the information provided by an MIS helps the managers to make planning and control decisions. Now, we will see, what is planning and control. Every organization in order to function must perform, certain operations. For Example, a car manufacturer has to perform certain manufacturing activities, a wholesaler has o provide water to its area of jurisdiction. All these are operations that need to be done. Besides, these operations, an organization must make plans for them. In other words it must decide on how many and what type of cars to make next month or what commissions to offer retailers or what pumping stations to install in the next five years.

Also an organization must control the operations in the light of the plans and targets developed in the planning process. The car manufacturer must know if manufacturing operations are in line with the targets and if not, he must make decisions to correct the deviation or revise his plans. Similarly the wholesaler will want to know the impacts that his commissions have had on sales and make decisions to correct adverse trends. The municipal corporation will need to control the tendering process and contractors who will execute the pumping station plans.
Generally, MIS is concerned with planning and control. Often there are elaborate systems for information that assists operations. For example, the car manufacturer will have a system for providing information to the workers on the shop floor about the job that needs to be done on a particular batch of material. There may be route sheets, which accompany the rate materials and components in their movement through various machines. This system per se provides only information to support operation. It has no managerial decision-making significance. It I not part of an MIS. If, however, the system does provided information on productivity, machine utilization or rejection rates, then we would say that the system is part of an MIS.
• Generally MIS has all the ingredients that are employed in providing information support to manager to making planning and control decisions. Managers often use historical data on an organization’s activities as well as current status data make planning and control decisions. Such data comes from a data base which is contained in files maintained by the organization . This data base is an essential component of an MIS. Manual procedures that are used to collect and process information and computer hardware are obvious ingredients of an MIS . These also form part of the MIS. In summary , when we say that “ an MIS is an integrated man – machine systems that provided information to supports the planning and control function of managers in an origination . It does the following function .
- sub serves managerial function
- collects stores , evaluates information systematically and routinely
- supports planning and control decisions
- Includes files , hardware , software , software and operations research models.
Effective management information systems are needed by all business organization because of the increased complexity and rate of change of today’s business environment . For Example, Marketing manager need information about sales performance and trends, financial manger returns, production managers needs information analyzing resources requirement and worker productivity and personnel manager require information concerning employee compensation and professional development. Thus, effective management information systems must be developed to provide modern managers with the specific marketing , financial, production and personnel information products they required to support their decision making responsibilities .
An MIS provides the following advantages.
1. It Facilitates planning : MIS improves the quality of plants by providing relevant information for sound decision – making . Due to increase in the size and complexity of organizations, managers have lost personal contact with the scene of operations.
2. In Minimizes information overload : MIS change the larger amount of data in to summarized form and there by avoids the confusion which may arise when managers are flooded with detailed facts.
3. MIS Encourages Decentralization : Decentralization of authority is possibly when there is a system for monitoring operations at lower levels. MIS is successfully used for measuring performance and making necessary change in the organizational plans and procedures.
4. It brings Co ordination : MIS facilities integration of specialized activities by keeping each department aware of the problem and requirements of other departments. It connects all decision centers in the organization .
5. It makes control easier : MIS serves as a link between managerial planning and control. It improves the ability of management to evaluate and improve performance . The used computers has increased the data processing and storage capabilities and reduced the cost .
6. MIS assembles, process , stores , Retrieves , evaluates and Disseminates the information .
The characteristics of an information system are:
• The Organisation of data into information:
For data to be made meaningful it must have a purpose. The purpose of the stored data should reflect the purpose and type of the information system. Data needs to be processed and organised before it becomes information. Organising the data will most likely involve the processes of sorting and filtering (classifying) before it can be analysed and stored for later retrieval. Data dictionaries are used to help organise the data.
•
• Ability to Analyse the Information:
• Once the data has become information it needs to be analysed to make the most of the information stored. Analysis of databases is done through the tools of queries and reports.

The Different Types and purposes (Functions) of an Information System are:

Processing Transactions:
A transaction processing system (tps) collects, stores, modifies and retrieves the transactions of an organization. Examples of such systems are automatic telling machines (ATMs), electronic funds transfer at point of sale (EFTPOS – also referred to as POS). There are two types of transaction of processing:

• Batch processing: where all of the transactions are collected and processed as one group or batch at a later stage.
• Real-time processing:where the transaction is processed immediately.
Provide Users with Information About an Organisation:
This information system provides information to managers about the performance of their organisation. It may involve information about payroll, an inventory, stock list or budgets and would require the printing of information in the form of reports normally based on queries. Examples of this kind of system are management information systems (MIS) and executive information systems (EIS).

Help Decision-making:
This type of system is also referred to as a decision support system (DSS). A decision support system will assist people to make decisions by providing tools to analyse the information stored in a system. A DSS will provide a mathematical model of the variables affecting the decision and then point directions for actions that should be taken. One such example is the system that used by stockbrokers, which chart fluctuations in price and then make buy or sell recommendations dependant upon the parameters predefined by the stockbroker. Many DSS will allow managers to ask “what if” style questions and then see what would happen. This is particularly useful when the variables are limited and predictions can be safely based on what is known. A DSS is only as accurate as the mathematical model used.

Another kind of DSS is an expert system. Expert systems are designed to help make decisions that would involve someone highly qualified an experienced in that field. An example of an expert system is one used by doctors to help diagnose patients or prescribe drugs.

Manage Information used Within an Organisation:
This system is designed to provide an efficient way of dealing with information within an office environment. Another name for this an office automation system. This will include word processors, spreadsheets, databases and email. An example of an office automation system is Microsoft Office.

Examples of Database Information Systems
Most Information systems store data in a database and are referred to as Database management Systems. Examples referred to in the syllabus include:
1. A school database holding information on teachers, subjects, classrooms and students
2. The Roads and Traffic authority holding information on automobiles and holders of driver’s licences
3. Video stores holding information on borrowers and videos.
Five Types of Information Systems
Information systems are constantly changing and evolving as technology continues to grow. Very importantly the information systems described below are not mutually exclusive and some (especially Expert Systems, Management Information Systems and Executive Information Systems are can be seen as a subset of Decision Support Systems). However these examples are not the only overlaps and the divions of these information systems will change over time.
At present there are five main types:

• Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
• Decision Support Systems (DSS)
• Expert Information Systems (EIS)
• Management Information Systems (MIS
• Office Automation Systems (OAS)



Characteristics of Information Systems
•Organise Data into information
•Analysis of Information to give knowledge
Make a list of as many information systems
that you can think of. Think-Pair Share
Types and Purposes of Information
Systems
TPS: Collect, store, modify and retrieve the
daily transactions of an organisation.
Organisations rely heavily on these systems.
Backup Sytems are important. TPS can be
either batch, or Real time processing.
Decision Support Systems assist people to
make decisions by providing information,
models and analysis tools. A DSS can be used
on a daily basis or when an organisation has to
react to the unexpected or make changes.
Eg: Analysis of stockmarket, buying and
selling shares.
Modelling of variables effecting decisions.
Uses what if analogies.
Expert Systems provide information and
solve problems that would otherwise require a
person experienced in that field Diagnosing,
monitoring, selecting, designing, predicting
and training. Captures a set of knowledge that
is often difficult to transfer by a series of
questions.
•The expert parent: Do you want to go out
tonight
•Have you cleaned your room?
•Have you done your homework?
•Are sensible people going?
•Have you got a way to get home?
•Are the persons parents going?
•Combining expertise from multiple
experts The friend expert:
•Do you look good?
•Can you convince your parents that you’re
allowed to go?
Diagnosis of disease
Problems in production
Management Information Systems
Provides basic information for an organisations
managers. An MIS presents basic facts about
the performance of an organisation. Some
common examples of MIS output are reports on
sales, stock, inventory, payroll
Office Automation Systems provide people with
effective ways to complete administrative
tasks in an organisation. Eg. Denbigh.
Automatic letter writing, email, dtp of
Characteristics of an information system
1. The Organization of data into information
For data to be made meaningful it must have a purpose. The purpose of the stored data should reflect the purpose and type of the information system. Data needs to be processed and organised before it becomes information. Organising the data will most likely involve the processes of sorting and filtering (classifying) before it can be analysed and stored for later retrieval. Data dictionaries are used to help organise the data.
2. Ability to Analyse the Information
Once the data has become information it needs to be analyzed to make the most of the information stored. Analysis of databases is done through the tools of queries and reports.
What Are The Types Of Information Systems And What Are The Characteristics Of These Information Systems?
There are five levels of information systems which serves the business enterprises on different levels. These systems include executive support system, decision support systems, management information systems, knowledge work systems, office systems and transaction processing systems. In transaction processing system, we have a integrated system who is serving the organization at operational level. It is a computerized system which process and records the ongoing transactions generally routine task in the business.

In knowledge work systems the user just enters the input to the computer system and the intelligent processing system display output after processing the information. This is useful for technical people in the organization. The third one is management information systems. In this type of information system usually very large volume of data is entered as input and the system process it and gives output in the form of simple summary. This system is very useful for the managers. The example of this system is annual budgeting in the organizations. The next level is decision support system it is very useful system that is used for the analysis of data and input. The data required for this system is in low volume and it is used by the professionals.




Reference:
http://www.blurtit.com/q945114.html
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-Information-Systems.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication
http://www.iienet2.org/Details.aspx?id=3290
http://www.businessballs.com/changemanagement.htm
http://www.internationalgraduate.net/information-systems.htm
http://www.management-hub.com/information-management-advantages.html
http://www.bettscomputers.com/characteristicsofinformationsystems.htm
http://www.bettscomputers.com/fivetypesofinformationsystems.htm
http://www.blurtit.com/q159696.html

click

References:
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_information_system_plan
http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/emotional_problems_psychologist/pyschologist_frustration.htm
http://www.idii.com/wp/Tse5reasonswhyprojectsfail.pdf
http://www.stevenalter.com/StevenAlter.com/Downloads___files/CAIS%2014-2%20IS%20Risk%20Factors%20-%20Are%20They%20Mostly%20About%20IS.pdf

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan? note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...(at least 3000 words)

Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to be. Causes of frustration may be internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, it can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a difficult task. While coping with frustration, some individuals may engage in passive-aggressive behavior, making it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of their frustration, as the responses are indirect. A more direct, and common response, is a propensity towards aggression.

Causes:

To the individual experiencing frustration, the emotion is usually attributed to external factors which are beyond their control. Although mild frustration due to internal factors (e.g. laziness, lack of effort) is often a positive force (inspiring motivation), it is more often than not a perceived uncontrolled problem that instigates more severe, and perhaps pathological, frustration. An individual suffering from pathological frustration will often feel powerless to change the situation they are in, leading to frustration and, if left uncontrolled, further anger.

Definition of Professional
The word professional can be defined or referred to as an expert, proficient, or skilled. A professional is someone who has great knowledge about his or her field - not only in his or her field of interest but also in his or her field of work. Moreover, the word professional can also refer to a person or someone who is engaged or employed in profession. When the word or term professional is referred to as a person, it can be a doctor, a lawyer, or an engineer. In the world of Information Technology, a lot of professionals can be found and these people are called Information Technology or Information Systems professional. They are the ones who have great knowledge about the world of computers, the hardware and the software components and even the people who manage these components. There are different types of professions in Information Technology – there are computer programmers, software engineers and systems analysts, to name a few. They all have skills and characteristics that they needed to possess in order for them to become good professionals in their line of work. In our past interview with an Information Technology professional – a Management Information System or MIS supervisor, to be exact, he told us about the different characteristics and skills of a good systems analyst that he or she must possess and develop. A systems analyst is someone whose task is to solve the problems that the company faces. He or she takes a deeper examination and evaluation on the steps to be taken and the risks that will be facing them to come up with the best solution to the problem. The systems analyst must know what the business is all about, understand the business flow of the organization, have knowledge about the people he or she will be dealing with and must have knowledge about computers and CASE tools. Last December 16, 2009, we conducted an interview with the Management Information Systems Supervisor of Sta. Ana Multipurpose Cooperative also known as SAMULCO. Among the skills and characteristics he gave are the following:

1. The systems analyst should have knowledge about systems integration.
2. The systems analyst should have a skill in calculating risk.
3. Experience
4. A systems analyst should be a people’s person with good communication skills.
5. A systems analyst should have a high Adversity Quotient.
6. Flexibility

He said that, in systems analysis, especially, like if you look into a system, you put a person in the center of the circle, that person will not see everything. But once you put him/her in the middle but if you put that person on top of the platform, he/she will see the holistic view of the system. A systems analyst should have both holistic and detailed approach to watching the system. He has an experience that he usually goes into details like an accountant is presenting something and told him that something is lacking. "One mistake is on the programmer, directly", he added. What the MIS supervisor was trying to point out is that as a good systems analyst, one must be both a holistic and a systematic learner because he said that one might just be missing everything else. If the analyst is just a holistic one, then he or she will not be able to see every detail of what the system really needs. On the other hand, if the analyst is just a systematic learner, he or she might not know the things that might be affected or overlooked at every move or any decision that he or she will be making.

The second characteristic he shared is that a good systems analyst should have a skill in calculating risk. “He or she should be a risk taker in a very smart way,” he said. He also defined the word risk as a “possibility of a loss”. “You cannot stop a risk from coming but you can always prepare when it comes,” he added. He even mentioned the law of Murphy which states that “if something can go wrong, it will.” But whatever risks that the systems analyst shall be facing, he or she must have an extra plan to carry out in order for him or her to be able to prevent greater damage or loss to the project.

Third one that he shared to us is experience and he said that, “experience is the best teacher”. Experience for me is a very good asset that a systems analyst possesses. Why, is it so? That is because, if one has an experience in programming or in analyzing and designing a system, it will not be very hard for him or her to handle bigger problems. Moreover, if one has an experience, he or she will already know the ways or techniques in systems analysis, coming up with a better solution or making a decision or choice which will best address the problem. The fourth is being a people’s person with good communication skills. The fifth is having a high Adversity Quotient skill so that the analyst will not break down when a problem comes, according to the MIS Supervisor. The last is flexibility. A good systems analyst must be flexible so that he or she will be able to adjust quickly in whatever changes or problems that will occur in the future.
Information systems professionals undergo and deal with different situations and people whenever they start to work at a new information systems plan. Their work does not only cover the development, the implementation and the maintenance of the information system for a company or business information. It has to undergo different phases or stages. However, it does not guarantee the information technology or information systems professionals that their work will go smoothly until its maintenance in the future. There are things that can be a hindrance to the success of the development and the implementation of their information systems plan. In addition, these hindrances can cause them frustrations in their line of work and somehow, might be affecting the development and the implementation of their information systems plan. Moreover, their work is not only limited in their information systems plan but it also covers the development of the product itself. Therefore, as professionals in information systems, they must plan ahead about the project that they are going to make. In order for a person to develop an information systems plan, I believe that, first, he or she must have a knowledge or understanding on what an information system is and what it does. Second is that he or she should have a basic information about his or her client. Third, he or she must identify the needs of the client and gather all the necessary information in order to come up with a good information systems plan. One way to identify the needs of the client or the company is to meet with the client. In this way, both parties will be able to discuss the needs and the things that should be done. The objectives, goals and priorities of the project must also be set. The information systems plan must coincide with the priorities and objectives that you formulated. Moreover, the information systems plan must be flexible. The importance of the flexibility of the information systems plan is to make it applicable if for instance, changes will occur. Another thing is to identify the risks that might occur during the planning until after the implementation phase of the information systems plan when the new information system plan is being used. Developing and implementing a strategic information systems plan is a major change in a company or business organization. Planning does not completely save them from frustrations but somehow, it minimizes the level of frustrations and risks that they might undergo.

Frustration can be a result of blocking motivated behavior. An individual may react in several different ways. He may respond with rational problem-solving methods to overcome the barrier. Failing in this, he may become frustrated and behave irrationally. An example of blockage of motivational energy would be the case of the worker who wants time off to go fishing but is denied permission by his supervisor. Another example would be the executive who wants a promotion but finds he lacks certain qualifications. If, in these cases, an appeal to reason does not succeed in reducing the barrier or in developing some reasonable alternative approach, the frustrated individual may resort to less adaptive methods of trying to reach his goal. He may, for example, attack the barrier physically or verbally or both.


Our Interview

Challenging Our Paradigms in Work and Career
Some of our biggest frustrations in life can come from our work environment. It might be work that is unfulfilling, co-workers that we have difficulty getting along with, or demanding organizational structures that seem to strip us of our time and suffocate our passion and creativity. We so often refer to this complex and stressful situation with a blanket term like "career burnout."
In many instances we may feel that our options for true fulfillment at work arelimited and our agreements generally take us into the following three patterns of coping with the dissatisfaction and frustrations:
Change the System.
When we care very much about what we are doing there is a passion to have it done well. The organization, or the systems in an organization don’t always seem to support what we think are improvements. When our desired changes aren't implemented we are often frustrate. Our challenge then becomes to change the people who are invested in the status quo. Without support we may look like a rebel and a non-conformist. This wasn’t the result we were looking for. Aside from the possible alienation, without noticeable change this uphill battle wears us down and the next option starts to look better.
Give Up the Fight for Change.
Change is wonderful a thing when it is accepted, but when ideas do not move forward into action, they die. If we become tired of the battle for change we are tempted to drop the fight. We give up caring because caring about it just becomes too painful. If we find ourselves saying “It doesn’t matter” or “I don’t really care”, this usually isn’t exactly true. Often we do care, it is just too painful to let ourselves feel the frustration and so we cover it up and push it away with these words. The solution appears to do the minimum that is required and take your place in the system. This is a defeat of our passion, inspiration and creativity and can lead us to our third option.
Quit or Leave.
This may entail going into your own business, finding another job, career, or for the spiritually inclined, leaving all your belongings behind and entering into a commune or ashram. This is essentially the “Grass is Greener Somewhere Else” solution. I remember vividly the jokes with my co-worker about shucking it all to sell ice cream on the beach. While it may very well be “better” in some ways someplace else, it also might not be, and so change is a risk. Not to mention the amount of disruption to ones life and lifestyle is not that appealing. There is a time and a place for this option, but be very aware of why you are doing it, and perhaps first, consider an alternate path below.
An Alternate Path
While there are aspects of our professional life that are unfulfilling and unchangeable, there are many aspects that we can affect. Often the biggest factors that make our jobs unfulfilling are issues we can change. These factors have to do with what is going on inside us. If we identify and eliminate the judgments and victimizing stories that we carry around about our work, co-workers, promotion, recognition, and the nature of the work, we can alleviate many of the frustrations. If we don’t deal with the underlying stories and beliefs that our inner judge and victim bring to the workplace they will often be carried into our next work environment. It will then appear that the new place was “just like the last place”, because our perceptions and our stories go with us. Once we deal with our stories and our point of view, then we can make the decision to make changes or look elsewhere with clarity and be sure of our choices.



That was hard to see right away because it was covered over with a story and another image of all her good attributes. She then used this image to broadcast in her mind how good she was at her job, and how her boss didn’t appreciate her for what she was really good at. These last two layers were on the surface but just covered up the real problem. The whole structure of stories and compensating images was based in the stories of her judge and victim which we were able to identify and dissolve.
After her judge and victim stories were dissolved, so did her fears of judgment and rejection. Along with that she could let go of the need to project all her strengths as compensation for the lesser image in her mind. With that, the report she “hated” turned into no big deal. It seemed the real problem with the report had more to do with self judgment, perception, and fear, than the work itself.
We continued working through her stories.

All businesses share one common asset, regardless of the type of business. It does not matter if they manufacture goods or provide services. It is a vital part of any business entity, whether a sole proprietorship or a multinational corporation. That common asset is information.
Information enables us to determine the need to create new products and services. Information tells us to move into new markets or to withdraw from other markets. Without information, the goods do not get made, the orders are not placed, the materials are not procured, the shipments are not delivered, the customers are not billed, and the business cannot survive.
But information has far lesser impact when presented as raw data. In order to maximize the value of information, it must be captured, analyzed, quantified, compiled, manipulated, made accessible, and shared. In order to accomplish those tasks, an information system (IS) must be designed, developed, administered, and maintained.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
An information system is a computer system that provides management and other personnel within an organization with up-to-date information regarding the organization's performance; for example, current inventory and sales. It usually is linked to a computer network, which is created by joining different computers together in order to share data and resources. It is designed to capture, transmit, store, retrieve, manipulate, and or display information used in one or more business processes. These systems output information in a form that is useable at all levels of the organization: strategic, tactical, and operational.
Systems that are specifically geared toward serving general, predictable management functions are sometimes called management information systems (MIS). A good example of an MIS report is the information that goes into an annual report created for the stockholders of a corporation (a scheduled report). The administration of an information system is typically the province of the MIS or information technology (IT) department within an organization.
Some applications have infringed on the familiar MIS landscape. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software and executive information systems (EIS) both provide packaged modules and programs that perform the same functions as traditional MIS, but with greater functionality, flexibility, and integration capabilities.
MAINFRAMES.
The original computerized information systems were based on mainframes. "Mainframe" is a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling computer. After the emergence of smaller mini-computer designs in the early 1970s, the traditional large machines were described as "mainframe computers," or simply mainframes. The term carries the connotation of a machine designed for batch rather than interactive use, though possibly with an interactive time-sharing operating system retrofitted onto it.

It has been conventional wisdom in most of the business community since the late 1980s that the mainframe architectural tradition is essentially dead, having been swamped by huge advances in integrated circuit design technology and low-cost personal computing. Despite this, mainframe sales in the United States enjoyed somewhat of a resurgence in the 1990s, as prices came down and as large organizations found they needed high-power computing resources more than ever. Supporters claim that mainframes still house 90 percent of the data major businesses rely on for mission-critical applications, attributing this to their superior performance, reliability, scalability, and security compared to microprocessors.
THE INTERNET.

The Internet has opened up further developments in information systems and the exchange of information via web-based e-mail, intranets, and extranets. These technologies allow for much faster data and information exchange and greater access for more users. Web-casting and videoconferencing allow for real-time information exchanges. Mobile computing technologies accessed by handheld devices, such as multi-functional mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and podcasting (via iPods), are offering further modes of communication.

We already discussed what resistance is an the other causes of frustrations in the information systems plan process. So far the two causes stated by our interviewee. The two causes are lack of support and the resistance that the workers of the company exert towards technology. These two cause frustrations. I read about frustration and I also happened to read about how to deal on frustrations. So how do we deal with frustrations? Well, perhaps the first and most immediate thing I do is to stop and take my mind off the things that frustrate me. I conserve whatever energy is left in me and use it to recharge myself. I do what my favorite poem tells me, “Rest, if you must, but don’t you quit.” I shut down everything temporarily and go inside my sanctuary – armed with music and my favorite comfort foods; I drive around the city without a destination. Yes, this routine has been very therapeutic for me for the past years. I would spend a couple of hours without worries inside my car and let all my troubles settle at the back of my mind. Other than driving, I’ve also managed to come up with other things to do whenever I’m feeling depressed and frustrated. Some of which are spending time and talking with friends, writing my frustrations down and then burning the paper (I know, how dramatic) and sometimes, I simply jog inside our village. I guess the key here is to release the frustrations in a non-aggressive way. Of course, your problems won’t get solved by simply doing that. Chances are, it will still be in the same state when you come back from taking a break. However, what I hope to be different this time is my enthusiasm to tackle the difficulties once again. Moreover, with revitalized energy, I am now more capable to think and act towards succeeding this time. Upon my return, I take stock of everything at hand and systematically analyze the situation by asking myself such questions: Furthermore, I always keep in mind that frustration may lead to aggression and procrastination. Remembering so helps me act consciously without negativity and delay. When your goals seems to be so near yet so far, take positivity from the small accomplishments you’ve already attained and learn to also reward your efforts, not just your results. In the end, when you finally achieve, you’ll find yourself stronger in character and more ready to face greater challenges. Dealing with your finances can be frustrating at times, especially when you’ve been working so hard to save and invest and then a financial emergency would come and ruin your plans. As a blogger, I’ve also become familiar with common frustrations in having a website such as spending long hours optimizing for income and traffic only to get less than expected results. How about in your case? What has been your frustration lately and how are you dealing with it? Kindly share them below and continue the conversation

Based on our interview with the MIS Manager of SAMULCO, the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan are Resitance to Change and Budget and Financial Constraints.

Resistance To Change


Definition

Resistance to change is the action taken by individuals and groups when they perceive that a change that is occurring as a threat to them.
Key words here are 'perceive' and 'threat'. The threat need not be real or large for resistance to occur.
In its usual description it refers to change within organizations, although it also is found elsewhere in other forms. Resistance is the equivalent of objections in sales and disagreement in general discussions.
Resistance may take many forms, including active or passive, overt or covert, individual or organized, aggressive or timid.


Rationale for resistance

The rationale for resistance is often quite straightforward as people justify their actions to themselves. If you want to overcome resistance to change, you must be able to answer the following points.

Person wants to stay where he is because…
Even if you offer me a bowl of cherries, he may not be very concerned to take what you proffer if he is happy where he is now. People who have been in the same place for a long time are usually in this state. They do not need to change and will view any suggestion of change with distaste.

…His needs are already met here
Needs are basic drivers of action. If needs are not perceived as being particularly threatened and the current situation is relatively comfortable (particularly in comparison with the proposed change) then he will be happier to stay where he am. If people already have their needs met, then you will need to shake the carpet and provide some sort of threat to those needs so they are no longer sufficiently met for the person to want to stay where they are.

…I have invested heavily here
When I have invested a lot of time and energy in building up my position, both socially and organizationally, then any change may mean bad news. Social investment creates a person's sense of identity. Organizational investment gives them control. Sliding down the ladder that I have so painstakingly climbed over the year is a long way from my shopping list. Where people have invested heavily, you will either have to show them how to get to a similar position in the new organization or otherwise reduce the value of their investment (for example by moving the people over whom they have social influence).

...I am in the middle of something important
When I have committed to achieving a goal, either personal or emotional, then a part of my integrity and hence identity may be bound up in achieving the goal. When I have partly completed something, I am also affected by the need for completion, such that I will feel uncomfortable with stopping now. When people are busy, find ways for them to complete the work in the shorter term, perhaps by nudging their goals so they have less to do to complete. If possible, turn their work towards something that will be useful for the new organization.

I do not want to change because…
Even if I am not that happy where I am, I still may not be particularly interested in moving forward with the change.

…the destination looks worse than where I am now
Although I want to move, the final resting place of the change looks significantly worse for me than the current position. I feel it is like jumping out of the frying pan and into the fire. If you want people to voluntarily move, then it must be to somewhere better than they are now. You can create this in two ways: first by making the present position worse (though be careful with this!) and secondly by building a rosy vision to which people can then attach their dreams.

…there is nothing to attract me forwards
If the change is nothing to do with me, if the benefits are all for other people or the general organization, if I just do not buy the 'vision' as sold, then I will feel no pull and I will not buy into the change.You may offer forth a brilliant vision, but do the people buy it? Make sure your communications are clear and couched in terms that people can understand and buy into. Make your visions inclusive, such that people really can and will buy the change.

…I do not know which way to move
If I buy the vision, I may still may not know which way to jump. Some change projects sound wonderful, but people are left wondering what to do (even the managers).Grand plans need to be turned into tactical detail in which people can see and easily take the step forward.

…the journey there looks painful
The final destination may be great, but the journey from here to there looks very uncomfortable. The anticipated pain of the transition is more immediate than the distant and hazy future, and I respond more to this than to any inspiring vision. Make sure the transitional period between now and the final change does not appear so uncomfortable that people refuse to join you. In practice, it may not be that bad -- what counts, though, is the perception of the people, so design the transition well and then communicate it well.

...the destination or journey is somehow bad or wrong
If the transition or the final destination somehow transgresses my values, then I will judge it to be bad or wrong and will be very loathe to join the party.Be careful with the change in working around established organizational and general social values. If you must break an unwritten rule (such as getting rid of people) then do so with appropriate consideration and care.

…I do not trust those who are asking me to change
If my experience of you is that you have been untrustworthy in the past, then I am not likely to buy your vision of the future. If you are going on what I perceive as a perilous journey, then I will not trust you and will not join you. The integrity of leaders is a very important attribute. If you want people to follow you, then you must give them good reason to trust you.

I am not going to change because…
Even if people do not want to change, they may still have to do so, albeit truculently. Some people, how ever, have the wherewithal to refuse.

…I am able to ignore the change
One of the questions I will ask is 'What happens if I do not go along with the change?' If the negative implications for my non-compliance are negligible, then I can happily not join in. This sort of situation occurs when the person in question is so valued by the organization that the idea of them leaving is unthinkable. This is often where difficult choices around change take place. What do you do with the laggards? If this problem is not addressed, then the people around them may take their lead and before long you have a silent revolution on your hands.

…I have the power to obstruct the change
Another reason why a person can happily ignore the change is because they can stop it. People in senior positions often treat change as being a good thing -- as long as it is for someone else. When faced with change themselves, they may do whatever it takes to scupper the change, for example by refusing to give needed access or other support. This is a good test of the senior sponsor of change -- which may need to be the most senior officer in the organization. Those who actively oppose the change must be dealt with -- preferably kindly and in in an understanding way, but ultimately in a firm and final way.


The nature of opposition
When considering stakeholders who are opposing the change, do a deep analysis of their personality to give you better ability to manage their opposition and convert them to the cause of the change. This analysis should help you to decide whether and how you might convert the person to the change cause or, if they are implacable opponents, how you might control or contain their opposition.

Drivers

Beliefs
Beliefs are basic drivers of thought and behavior. If you can understand their beliefs, you can begin to change them.
• What are their beliefs about people? Their rights? Their capabilities?
• What beliefs do they have about themselves?
• How strongly do they hold these beliefs?
• What are the beliefs that they have that led them to oppose the change?
• What beliefs do they have that could be used to help convert them?

Values
Values are guides and shapers of behavior that tell what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant. Understanding a person's values tells you what they will not do as much as what they will do.
• Are any of their values being transgressed by change actions?
• What are their stress values? Are these being triggered?
• What values can you appeal to, to persuade them to change?

Goals
Goals are the deliberate objectives that we set ourselves to satisfy values and needs. By identifying these and how they are affected by change, you can
• What are their career goals?
• What are their social goals?
• What other goals do they have?
• How are any of these affected by the change?

Perceptions
The perceptions that people have of the change is based on their internal systems and the inferences they make. Perception is reality for the person, even it if is not really true. It therefore makes sense to understand how they perceive the change.
• What are their perceptions of the change? What do they think will happen?
• What are their perceptions of other stakeholders in the change? Do they think others will help them? Do they think others will gain unfair advantage?
• What are their perceptions of those implementing the change? Do they think the change agents will be fair? Do they think they are competent?

Potential
A critical question about opponents of change is what they can and are likely do to oppose the change.
• What power do they have?
• What is the source of that power? (position, expertise, social, etc.)
• How might they use that power? (blocking, persuading others, etc.)
• What would the impact of that action be? (local, widespread, etc.)
• How might their power change?

Triggers
And when you understand the power that a person who is opposing or may oppose the change, the final step is to understand their triggers, those events that would tip them into action.
• What would lead them to use that power? (events, actions, etc.)
• What would defuse them beforehand? (involvement, listening, etc.)
• What would bring them down after they had started resisting? (listening, threats, etc.)
• Who do they listen to? (friends, social leaders, senior people, etc.)
• What could other people do to contain or convert them? (words, action, etc.)

When resistance to change occurs, then it is very helpful to be able to spot it coming and hence respond appropriately to it (rather than be surprised when the change mysteriously fails).

Signs of resistance

Early signs of resistance
If you can catch resistance early, then you can respond to it before it takes hold, effectively nipping it in the bud.

Gossip
When the change is announced, the tom-toms will start beating loudly and grapevine will bear fruit of much and varied opinion. Keep your ear to the ground on what is being said around the coffee points. Listen particularly for declaration of intent and attempts to organize resistance. Grumbling and complaint are natural ways of airing discomfort, so you should not try to squash it (you would fail, anyway). The biggest danger of it is when it is allowed to ferment in an information vacuum.
Respond to gossip by opening it up, showing you are listening to concerns and taking them seriously, and providing lots of valid information that will fill the vacuum.

Testing
Just as a high school class will test a teacher's ability to maintain discipline, so also will some brave soul test out what happens when they resist change. They may, for example, not turn up to a meeting or openly challenge a decision. How you deal with such early resistance will have a significant effect on what happens next. For example you can jump on the person and squash both them and their words, or you can take an adult position, describing what they have done and assertively questioning their motives.

Collectivism of resistance
Resistance can happen both on an individual case-by-case basis or people may band together.

Individual action
Individually, people may resist, although this is generally limited to the extent of their personal power. For those with lower power, this may include passive refusals and covert action. For those with more power, it can include open challenge and criticism.
Handle individual action individually, starting with those with greater power. As necessary, you may need to make an example, and disciplining a senior executive can send a strong signal to other resistors.

Collective action
When people find a common voice in organized resistance, then their words and actions can create a significant threat to the change, even though they are individually less powerful. Trade Unions are a classic example of this.
Organized resistance is usually a sign of a deep divide. People will not go to the bother of organizing unless they have serious issues with the change. Manage collectives by negotiating with their leaders (which can be much easier than dealing with a myriad of smaller fires). You may well need to make concessions, but you at least should be able to rescue some key elements of the change. You can also 'divide and conquer' by striking deals with individual key players, although this must be done very carefully as it can cause a serious backlash.

Visibility of resistance
Sometimes resistance is out in the open, but more often it starts out in a more underhand, covert way.

Covert resistance
Covert resistance is deliberate resistance to change, but done in a manner that allows the perpetrators to appear as if they are not resisting. This may occur, for example, through sabotage of various kinds. Handle covert resistance by showing that you know what is happening and setting in place investigations designed to identify the people responsible.

Overt resistance
Overt resistance does not try to hide, and is a result either of someone comfortable with their power, someone for whom covert acts are against their values, or someone who is desperate. This may take forms such as open argument, refusal or attack.
Deal with overt resistance by first seeking to respond openly and authentically. If the resistance is blind, then you will have no alternative but to defend, for example by isolating and disciplining attackers.

Activity of resistance
Overt resistance does not need to take positive action -- sometimes it can be passive.

Passive resistance
Passive resistance occurs where people do not take specific actions. At meetings, they will sit quietly and may appear to agree with the change. Their main tool is to refuse to collaborate with the change. In passive aggression, for example, they may agree and then do nothing to fulfill their commitments. This can be very difficult to address, as resisters have not particularly done anything wrong. One way to address this is to get public commitment to an action (and you can start small on this), then follow up -- publicly if necessary -- to ensure they complete the action. Then keep repeating this until they are either bought in or give in.


Active resistance
Active resistance occurs where people are taking specific and deliberate action to resist the change. It may be overt, with such as public statements and acts of resistance, and it may be covert, such as mobilizing others to create an underground resistance movement.
Overt active resistance, although potentially damaging, is at least visible and you have the option of using formal disciplinary actions (although more positive methods should normally be used first). When it is covert, you may also need to use to covert methods to identify the source and hence take appropriate action.

Dealing with resistance
Here is a small raft of things you can do to handle resistance, starting with kind and moral approaches and ending with the harsher end of gaining compliance. This whole site has fleets other things you can do, of course.

Facilitation
The best approach to creating change is to work with them, helping them achieve goals that somehow also reach to the goals of the change project. When you work with people, they will be happier to work with you.
This is a good practice when people want to collaborate but are struggling to adjust to the situation and achieve the goals of change.

Education
When people are not really bought into the rationale for the change, they may well come around once they realize why the change is needed and what is needed of them. In particular, if new skills are required, you can provide these via a focused course of education.

Involvement
When people are not involved physically or intellectually, they are unlikely to be involved emotionally either. One of the best methods of getting people bought in is to get them involved. When their hands are dirty, they realize that dirt is not so bad, after all. They also need to justify their involvement to themselves and so persuade themselves that is the right thing to do.

Negotiation
When the other person cannot easily be persuaded, then you may need to give in order to get. Sit them down and ask what they are seeking. Find out what they want and what they will never accept. Work out a mutually agreeable solution that works just for them and just for you.

Manipulation
Manipulation means controlling a person's environment such that they are shaped by what is around them. It can be a tempting solution, but is morally questionable and, if they sense what you are doing, will lead to a very dangerous backlash. Only consider this when change is necessary in the short term and all other avenues have been explored.

Coercion
Even more extreme than subtle manipulation is overt coercion. This is where you sit them down and make overt threats, for example that if they do not comply that they will lose their jobs, perhaps in a humiliating and public sacking. This should only be used when speed is of the essence or when the other person themselves has taken to public and damaging actions.

How to cause resistance

Here are just a few of the ways you can cause people to resist the change:
• Resist the resistance, fighting back.
• Do not use your sponsors.
• Try to do everything yourself.
• Allow sponsors to be non-committal about the change.
• Use threats and aggressive language.
• Avoid talking to individual people.
• Avoid listening to people.
• Do not visit the various teams affected.
• Spend more time with your allies (and avoiding the troublemakers).
• Ignore those who resist. Keep your fingers crossed they will give up.
• Tell people about your plans and then ignore the plans.
• Give lots of rational reasons why people should do as you say.
• Dive into the details before they have bought the big picture.
• Do not test that people have understood what you have said.
• Lose faith yourself in the change.
• Be vague about what the change will be.
• Avoid being the messenger of bad news.
• Collude with the other person.
• Produce non-specific plans.
• Expect people to instantly understand what took you three weeks to figure out.
• Publicly and aggressively punish those who object.
• Shout down anyone who disagrees.
• Do not change reward systems to align with the change.
• Make 'an exception' for talented people who resist.


Responding to unexpected resistance

What happens when you are in the middle of a conversation or meeting and someone speaks out against the change?

Pause
The natural tendency of many people is to respond immediately, perhaps butting in or cutting the other person short. The voice may be authoritarian and tinged with anger. But think how this appears to other people? The message being sent is 'public disagreement is not allowed'. A likely effect is that the person resisting now has the sympathy of others (and may recruit the others to their cause). It is also very likely that the resistance will just go underground. So the very first thing is to bite your lip, hold your tongue and count to three. Take a moment to pause and assess the situation. What are others doing? Is the person speaking cautious or bold? What does the body language tell you?

Listen
The next step is to listen carefully not only to what they are saying but also to how they are saying it. Listen for the deeper messages between the lines. Listen to their fears, hopes and ambitions. Hear the tensions and emotions. Notice how they are coping. You can also draw out further information, tipping the bucket to ensure you have the whole story. Use appropriate questioning techniques to learn more.

Empathize
Make your initial response one that empathizes with their position. Show first that you understand (even though you may not agree) and respect their right to voice an honest opinion. This and other previous action will have won you many friends -- perhaps even the person in question who may have been expecting you to resist their resistance (which is just what it would be) and is preparing for a fight. When people expect a fight and find only concern, the surprise is likely to change their opinion.

Think
Before you open your mouth, think hard about what you are going to say and how you are going to say it. Done wrong, a response will show your empathy to be false and may cause a bitter backlash.

Respond
Respond in a way that offers the other person a dignified way out. Seek win-win. Use their language. Reframe their position to show a bigger picture.

The income statement is a simple and straightforward report on the proposed business's cash-generating ability. It is a score card on the financial performance of your business that reflects when sales are made and when expenses are incurred. It draws information from the various financial models developed earlier such as revenue, expenses, capital (in the form of depreciation), and cost of goods. By combining these elements, the income statement illustrates just how much your company makes or loses during the year by subtracting cost of goods and expenses from revenue to arrive at a net result -- which is either a profit or a loss.


Budget and Financial Constraints

Financial Constraints and Differential Investment Responses

Since differences in investment opportunities arising from product market exposures do not appear to explain differences in the effects of depreciations on affiliates and local firms, we now consider an alternate explanation: a differential ability to overcome financial constraints.

Local Firms and Leverage Differences



The Financing of Multinational Affiliates During Sharp Depreciations


Alternative Explanations



Reference:
WIKIPEDIA.org

Let us define first what is an Information System. An Information System (IS) is any combination of information technology and people's activities using that technology to support operations, management, and decision-making.[1] In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, algorithmic processes, data and technology. In this sense, the term is used to refer not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes. Some make a clear distinction between information systems, ICT and business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology in that an information system is typically seen as having an ICT component. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes [3].
Alter argues for an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans and/or machines perform work using resources (including ICT) to produce specific products and/or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to processing (capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying) information. Part of the difficulty in defining the term information system is due to vagueness in the definition of related terms such as system and information. Beynon-Davies argues for a clearer terminology based in systemics and semiotics. He defines an information system as an example of a system concerned with the manipulation of signs. An information system is a type of socio-technical system. An information system is a mediating construct between actions and technology [5].
As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action.
Information systems are the primary focus of study for the information systems discipline and for organisational informatics. Information systems are important tools for effectively meeting organizational objectives. Readily available, complete, and accurate information is essential for making informed and timely decisions. Being unable to obtain needed data, wading through unneeded data, or inefficiently processing needed data wastes resources. The organization must identify its information needs on the basis of a systematic identification and analysis of its mission and functions to be performed, who is to perform them, the information and supporting data needed to perform the functions, and the processes needed to most usefully structure the information. Successful information system development and acquisition must include a rigorous and disciplined process of data gathering, evaluation, and analysis prior to committing significant financial and human resources to any information system development. While implementing such an approach may not preclude all information system acquisition problems, it should produce detailed knowledge of organizational missions and operations, user information needs and alternatives to address those needs, and an open and flexible architecture that is expandable or that can be upgraded to meet future needs. The purpose and use of information system in the beginning was targeted towards reducing manual labor and increasing efficiency and thus reducing cost of doing business. Cost has thus been the ‘primal instinct’ justification for the usage of Information system in companies. Management seems to still use this justification even in today’s day and age because the IT salesman still thinks it’s the best and only way to get management buy-in. Moreover, as most other rationales used for IS have proved hard to sell, both the IT sales teams and their customers find a comfort zone in cost savings. This could also be because both sides (from all their previous experiences) are convinced of their failure before they even start out on a different track. The past experiences, in most cases were times they tried, half heartedly probably, without enough experience and failed. These failures have resulted in the baby being thrown out along with the dirty water.
Characteristics of a Quality ISP
A quality ISP must exhibit five distinct characteristics before it is useful.
Timely- The ISP must be timely. An ISP that is created long after it is needed is useless. In almost all cases, it makes no sense to take longer to plan work than to perform the work planned.
Useable- The ISP must be useable. It must be so for all the projects as well as for each project. The ISP should exist in sections that once adopted can be parceled out to project managers and immediately started.
Maintainable- The ISP must be maintainable. New business opportunities, new computers, business mergers, etc. all affect the ISP. The ISP must support quick changes to the estimates, technologies employed, and possibly even to the fundamental project sequences. Once these changes are accomplished, the new ISP should be just a few computer program executions away.
Quality- While the ISP must be a quality product, no ISP is ever perfect on the first try. As the ISP is executed, the metrics employed to derive the individual project estimates become refined as a consequence of new hardware technologies, code generators, techniques, or faster working staff. As these changes occur, their effects should be installable into the data that supports ISP computation. In short, the ISP is a living document. It should be updated with every technology event, and certainly no less often than quarterly.
Reproducible- The ISP must be reproducible. That is, when its development activities are performed by any other staff, the ISP produced should essentially be the same. The ISP should not significantly vary by staff assigned.
The information systems plan project determines the sequence for implementing specific information systems. The goal of the strategy is to deliver the most valuable business information at the earliest time possible in the most cost-effective manner.
The end product of the information systems project is an information systems plan (ISP). Once deployed, the information systems department can implement the plan with confidence that they are doing the correct information systems project at the right time and in the right sequence. The focus of the ISP is not one information system but the entire suite of information systems for the enterprise. Once developed, each identified information system is seen in context with all other information systems within the enterprise.
IT projects are accomplished within distinct development environments. The two most common are: discrete project and release. The discrete project environment is typified by completely encapsulated projects accomplished through a water-fall methodology.
In release environments, there are a number of different projects underway by different organizations and staff of varying skill levels. Once a large number of projects are underway, the ability of the enterprise to know about and manage all the different projects degrades rapidly. That is because the project management environment has been transformed from discrete encapsulated projects into a continuous flow process of product or functionality improvements that are released on a set time schedule. Figure 3 illustrates the continuous flow process environment that supports releases. The continuous flow process environment is characterized by:
• Multiple, concurrent, but differently scheduled projects against the same enterprise resource
• Single projects that affect multiple enterprise resources
• Projects that develop completely new capabilities, or changes to existing capabilities within enterprise resources
It is precisely because enterprises have transformed themselves from a project to a release environment that information systems plans that can be created, evolved, and maintained on an enterprise-wide basis are essential.
There are four major sets of activities within the continuous flow process environment. The user/client is represented at the top in the small rectangular box. Each of the ellipses represents an activity targeted to a specific need. The four basic needs are:
• Need Identification
• Need Assessment
• Design
• Deployment
Last December 14, we have interviewed the MIS Supervisor of Samulco or Sta. Ana Multipurpose Cooperative. We asked him what are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan. And he answered these:

1. Lack of Budget- the company only has limited budget for the system or it does not have any budget for the system.

A budget is generally a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for saving and spending. The purpose of budgeting is to:
1. Provide a forecast of revenues and expenditures i.e. construct a model of how our business might perform financially speaking if certain strategies, events and plans are carried out.
2. Enable the actual financial operation of the business to be measured against the forecast.

The budget of a company is often compiled annually, but may not be. A finished budget, usually requiring considerable effort, is a plan for the short-term future, typically one year. While traditionally the Finance department compiles the company's budget, modern software allows hundreds or even thousands of people in various departments (operations, human resources, IT etc) to list their expected revenues and expenses in the final budget.
If the actual figures delivered through the budget period come close to the budget, this suggests that the managers understand their business and have been successfully driving it in the intended direction. On the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an 'out of control' signal, and the share price could suffer as a result.
Not only is the Lack of Budget can make a system not implement, lack of budget can also
Lack of Budget is one of the dangerous factors in a company. Here is an article about how lack of budget really is dangerous to a company. This is from eweek.com:
“Enterprise Strategy Group conducted a survey of IT decision makers and discovered that more than half of respondents reported their organization had experienced a data breach in the last 12 months. The most commonly cited barrier to database security was a lack of budget – a troubling indicator with current economic conditions. A survey of IT decision makers by the Enterprise Strategy Group is enough to make those concerned about database security tremble slightly.
While 58 percent of the 179 respondents reported the database is where most confidential data is located, more than half said their organizations suffered a data breach in the last 12 months. Some 54 percent said a lack of internal processes and controls hinder the effectiveness of their database security efforts. The statistics don’t get much better from there. According to the survey, 15 percent of respondents said that their organization suffered “several confidential data breaches” in the past year, while another 41 percent claimed that their organization had experienced only one. Forty percent of the respondents cited a “lack of budget” as the major inhibitor of their database security efforts. Other common responses were “lack of senior management sponsorship”; “we do not have an accurate inventory of our enterprise databases”; and “we aren’t sure what types of database security technologies and controls we need” – all cited by 21 percent of respondents. Another challenge, the study pointed out, is that responsibility for database security is spread across several areas in an enterprise, including security administrators, IT operations, data center managers and system administrators. Forty-two percent laid the responsibility at the feet of database administrators (DBAs). At some enterprises, this has led to the creation of the position of database security specialist. But whether putting database security in the hands of one person is best depends on the size of the organization's environment, said Tom Bain, director of marketing and communications at Application Security. Application Security sponsored the survey. “2009 may be the year we really start to see the database security administrator,” he said. “But another key factor is collaboration – departments within IT need to get on the same page, and they need to identify where they’re lacking the resources, assess what they feel is priority and start working from the inside out at the data core to ensure the safeguards are in place, as well as the policies and processes. The DBA can’t really be the only person with visibility into the database – access controls are absolutely critical here.” A checks-and-balances approach is integral to ensuring high levels of security across an organization, he said. However, he added that there still must be a department or group of individuals that has ultimate responsibility for database security – and it needs to be supported by the senior management team. When it comes to that, Enterprise Strategy Group analyst Jon Oltsik said senior managers need to be educated on the specific vulnerabilities and security needs associated with databases. “I think there is an education gap that needs attention,” he said. “Often times, security people are afraid to ask for more money and senior managers equate each security dollar equally - a dollar spent for firewalls is no different than a database security dollar.”
In the report, Oltsik recommends enterprises start with a full database inventory and look for integrated database security product suites with multiple capabilities such as user monitoring, database discovery and vulnerability scanning. He also suggested businesses define policies and best practices as if they had unlimited resources, and then work backward to prioritize what they need. “ An IS plan could not really be implemented due to the lack of budget to support the system.


2. Resistance to Change- Resistance to change is the action taken by individuals and groups when they perceive that a change that is occurring as a threat to them.

Most people don't like change because they don't like being changed. When change comes into view, fear and resistance to change follow – often despite its obvious benefits. People fight against change because they:
• fear to lose something they value, or
• don't understand the change and its implications, or
• don't think that the change makes sense, or
• find it difficult to cope with either the level or pace of the change.

Resistance emerges when there s a threat to something the individual values. The threat may be real or it may be just a perception. It may arise from a genuine understanding of the change or from misunderstanding, or even almost total ignorance about it.
For some people resisting change, there may be multiple reasons. Adding to this complexity is the fact that sometimes the stated reason hides the real, more deeply personal reason. You will also need to recognize that people work through a psychological change process as they give up the old and come to either embrace or reject the new.
Typically, they may experience an initial denial, then begin to realize that the change cannot be ignored. Strong feelings may emerge, such as fear, anger, helplessness and frustration. Finally, the person accepts the change either negatively, with feelings of resignation and complacency, or positively, with renewed enthusiasm to capitalize on the changes. Watch out for employees who get “stuck” in one phase. Offer your support. Allow space for people to work through the stages. Give employees time to draw breath and listen with empathy.

Resistance to Change in the Workplace: Main Reasons

• Fear of the unknown. Change implies uncertainty, and uncertainty is uncomfortable. Not knowing what may potentially happen often leads to heightened anxiety. Resisting change is one of the anxiety-reducing actions.1
• Fear of failure. The new order may require skill and abilities that may be beyond our capabilities. There is resistance to trying a new approach as people know how to operate in the existing order, but fear they will not be able to the new skills and behavior that will be required of them.
• Disagreement with the need for change. Associates may feel that the new direction is a wrong direction.
• Losing something of value. All associates want to know how the change will affect them. If people believe they will wind up losing as a result of the change, they will resist.
• Leaving a comfort zone. People are afraid to go after what they want because it would force them to stretch their comfort zones. It's only natural to put off things that scare us, to sidestep goals that require us to leave our comfort zone and take a risk.
• False beliefs. To put themselves at ease and avoid taking the risk, many people fool themselves into believing everything will all work out someday by itself.
• Misunderstanding and lack of trust. People resist change when they do not understand its implications and perceive that it might cost them much more than they gain. Such situations often occur when trust is lacking between the person initiating the change and the employees.2
• Inertia. All organizations suffer from inertia to some degree and try to maintain status quo. Change requires effort, oftentimes, a significant one. So, don't underestimate the power of fatigue and burnout.
Some reasons
1. THE RISK OF CHANGE IS SEEN AS GREATER THAN THE RISK OF STANDING STILL
Making a change requires a kind of leap of faith: you decide to move in the direction of the unknown on the promise that something will be better for you. But you have no proof. Taking that leap of faith is risky, and people will only take active steps toward the unknown if they genuinely believe – and perhaps more importantly, feel – that the risks of standing still are greater than those of moving forward in a new direction. Making a change is all about managing risk. If you are making the case for change, be sure to set out in stark, truthful terms why you believe the risk situation favors change. Use numbers whenever you can, because we in the West pay attention to numbers. At the very least, they get our attention, and then when the rational mind is engaged, the emotional mind (which is typically most decisive) can begin to grapple with the prospect of change. But if you only sell your idea of change based on idealistic, unseen promises of reward, you won’t be nearly as effective in moving people to action. The power of the human fight-or-flight response can be activated to fight for change, but that begins with the perception of risk.
2. PEOPLE FEEL CONNECTED TO OTHER PEOPLE WHO ARE IDENTIFIED WITH THE OLD WAY
We are a social species. We become and like to remains connected to those we know, those who have taught us, those with whom we are familiar – even at times to our own detriment. Loyalty certainly helped our ancestors hunt antelope and defend against the aggressions of hostile tribes, and so we are hard wired, I believe, to form emotional bonds of loyalty, generally speaking. If you ask people in an organization to do things in a new way, as rational as that new way may seem to you, you will be setting yourself up against all that hard wiring, all those emotional connections to those who taught your audience the old way - and that’s not trivial. At the very least, as you craft your change message, you should make statements that honor the work and contributions of those who brought such success to the organization in the past, because on a very human but seldom articulated level, your audience will feel asked to betray their former mentors (whether those people remain in the organization or not). A little good diplomacy at the outset can stave off a lot of resistance.
3. PEOPLE HAVE NO ROLE MODELS FOR THE NEW ACTIVITY
Never underestimate the power of observational learning. If you see yourself as a change agent, you probably are something of a dreamer, someone who uses the imagination to create new possibilities that do not currently exist. Well, most people don’t operate that way. It’s great to be a visionary, but communicating a vision is not enough. Get some people on board with your idea, so that you or they can demonstrate how the new way can work. Operationally, this can mean setting up effective pilot programs that model a change and work out the kinks before taking your innovation “on the road.” For most people, seeing is believing. Less rhetoric and more demonstration can go a long way toward overcoming resistance, changing people’s objections from the “It can’t be done!” variety to the “How can we get it done?” category.
4. PEOPLE FEAR THEY LACK THE COMPETENCE TO CHANGE
This is a fear people will seldom admit. But sometimes, change in organizations necessitates changes in skills, and some people will feel that they won’t be able to make the transition very well. They don’t think they, as individuals, can do it. The hard part is that some of them may be right. But in many cases, their fears will be unfounded, and that’s why part of moving people toward change requires you to be an effective motivator. Even more, a successful change campaign includes effective new training programs, typically staged from the broad to the specific. By this I mean that initial events should be town-hall type information events, presenting the rationale and plan for change, specifying the next steps, outlining future communications channels for questions, etc., and specifying how people will learn the specifics of what will be required of them, from whom, and when. Then, training programs must be implemented and evaluated over time. In this way, you can minimize the initial fear of a lack of personal competence for change by showing how people will be brought to competence throughout the change process. Then you have to deliver.
5. PEOPLE FEEL OVERLOADED AND OVERWHELMED
Fatigue can really kill a change effort, for an individual or for an organization. If, for example, you believe you should quit smoking, but you’ve got ten projects going and four kids to keep up with, it can be easy to put off your personal health improvement project (until your first heart attack or cancer scare, when suddenly the risks of standing still seem greater than the risks of change!). When you’re introducing a change effort, be aware of fatigue as a factor in keeping people from moving forward, even if they are telling you they believe in the wisdom of your idea. If an organization has been through a lot of upheaval, people may resist change just because they are tired and overwhelmed, perhaps at precisely the time when more radical change is most needed! That’s when you need to do two things: re-emphasize the risk scenario that forms the rationale for change (as in my cancer scare example), and also be very generous and continuously attentive with praise, and with understanding for people’s complaints, throughout the change process. When you reemphasize the risk scenario, you’re activating people’s fears, the basic fight-or-flight response we all possess. But that’s not enough, and fear can produce its own fatigue. You’ve got to motivate and praise accomplishments as well, and be patient enough to let people vent (without getting too caught up in attending to unproductive negativity).
6. PEOPLE HAVE A HEALTHY SKEPTICISM AND WANT TO BE SURE NEW IDEAS ARE SOUND
It’s important to remember that few worthwhile changes are conceived in their final, best form at the outset. Healthy skeptics perform an important social function: to vet the change idea or process so that it can be improved upon along the road to becoming reality. So listen to your skeptics, and pay attention, because some percentage of what they have to say will prompt genuine improvements to your change idea (even if some of the criticism you will hear will be based more on fear and anger than substance).
7. PEOPLE FEAR HIDDEN AGENDAS AMONG WOULD-BE REFORMERS
Let’s face it, reformers can be a motley lot. Not all are to be trusted. Perhaps even more frightening, some of the worst atrocities modern history has known were begun by earnest people who really believed they knew what was best for everyone else. Reformers, as a group, share a blemished past . . . And so, you can hardly blame those you might seek to move toward change for mistrusting your motives, or for thinking you have another agenda to follow shortly. If you seek to promote change in an organization, not only can you expect to encounter resentment for upsetting the established order and for thinking you know better than everyone else, but you may also be suspected of wanted to increase your own power, or even eliminate potential opposition through later stages of change.

I saw this in a recent change management project for which I consulted, when management faced a lingering and inextinguishable suspicion in some quarters that the whole affair was a prelude to far-reaching layoffs. It was not the case, but no amount of reason or reassurance sufficed to quell the fears of some people. What’s the solution? Well, you’d better be interested in change for the right reasons, and not for personal or factional advantage, if you want to minimize and overcome resistance. And you’d better be as open with information and communication as you possibly can be, without reacting unduly to accusations and provocations, in order to show your good faith, and your genuine interest in the greater good of the organization. And if your change project will imply reductions in workforce, then be open about that and create an orderly process for outplacement and in-house retraining. Avoid the drip-drip-drip of bad news coming out in stages, or through indirect communication or rumor. Get as much information out there as fast as you can and create a process to allow everyone to move on and stay focused on the change effort.
8. PEOPLE FEEL THE PROPOSED CHANGE THREATENS THEIR NOTIONS OF THEMSELVES
Sometimes change on the job gets right to a person’s sense of identity. When a factory worker begins to do less with her hands and more with the monitoring of automated instruments, she may lose her sense of herself as a craftsperson, and may genuinely feel that the very things that attracted her to the work in the first place have been lost. I saw this among many medical people and psychologists during my graduate training, as the structures of medical reimbursement in this country changed in favor of the insurance companies, HMO’s and managed care organizations. Medical professionals felt they had less say in the treatment of their patients, and felt answerable to less well trained people in the insurance companies to approve treatments the doctors felt were necessary. And so, the doctors felt they had lost control of their profession, and lost the ability to do what they thought best for patients.

My point is not to take sides in that argument, but to point out how change can get right to a person’s sense of identity, the sense of self as a professional. As a result, people may feel that the intrinsic rewards that brought them to a particular line of work will be lost with the change. And in some cases, they may be absolutely right. The only answer is to help people see and understand the new rewards that may come with a new work process, or to see how their own underlying sense of mission and values can still be realized under the new way of operating. When resistance springs from these identity-related roots, it is deep and powerful, and to minimize its force, change leaders must be able to understand it and then address it, acknowledging that change does have costs, but also, (hopefully) larger benefits.
9. PEOPLE ANTICIPATE A LOSS OF STATUS OR QUALITY OF LIFE
Real change reshuffles the deck a bit. Reshuffling the deck can bring winners . . . and losers. Some people, most likely, will gain in status, job security, quality of life, etc. with the proposed change, and some will likely lose a bit. Change does not have to be a zero sum game, and change can (and should) bring more advantage to more people than disadvantage. But we all live in the real world, and let’s face it – if there were no obstacles (read: people and their interests) aligned against change, then special efforts to promote change would be unnecessary.

Some people will, in part, be aligned against change because they will clearly, and in some cases correctly, view the change as being contrary to their interests. There are various strategies for minimizing this, and for dealing with steadfast obstacles to change in the form of people and their interests, but the short answer for dealing with this problem is to do what you can to present the inevitability of the change given the risk landscape, and offer to help people to adjust. Having said that, I’ve never seen a real organizational change effort that did not result in some people choosing to leave the organization, and sometimes that’s best for all concerned. When the organization changes, it won’t be to everyone’s liking, and in that case, it’s best for everyone to be adult about it and move on.
10. PEOPLE GENUINELY BELIEVE THAT THE PROPOSED CHANGE IS A BAD IDEA
I’ll never forget what a supervisor of mine said to be, during the year after I had graduated from college, secure as I was in the knowledge of my well earned, pedigreed wisdom at age twenty-two. We were in a meeting, and I made the comment, in response to some piece of information, “Oh, I didn’t know that!” Ricky, my boss, looked at me sideways, and commented dryly, “Things you don’t know . . . fill libraries.” The truth is, sometimes someone’s (even – gasp! – my) idea of change is just not a good idea. Sometimes people are not being recalcitrant, or afraid, or muddle-headed, or nasty, or foolish when they resist. They just see that we’re wrong. And even if we’re not all wrong, but only half wrong, or even if we’re right, it’s important not to ignore when people have genuine, rational reservations or objections.

Not all resistance is about emotion, in spite of this list I’ve assembled here. To win people’s commitment for change, you must engage them on both a rational level and an emotional level. I’ve emphasized the emotional side of the equation for this list because I find, in my experience, that this is the area would-be change agents understand least well. But I’m also mindful that a failure to listen to and respond to people’s rational objections and beliefs is ultimately disrespectful to them, and to assume arrogantly that we innovative, change agent types really do know best. A word to the wise: we’re just as fallible as anyone.
The six phases personal or professional change
1. Anticipation. The waiting stage. They really don't know what to expect so they wait, anticipating what the future holds.
2. Confrontation. People begin to confront reality. The realize that change is really going to happen or is happening.
3. Realization. Post change - Realizing that nothing is ever going to be as it once was.
4. Depression. Often a necessary step in the change process. This is the stage where a person mourns the past. Not only have they realized the change intellectually, but now they are beginning to comprehend it emotionally as well.
5. Acceptance. Aacceptance of the change emotionally. Although they may still have reservations, they are not fighting the change at this stage. They may even see some of the benefits even if they are not completely convinced.
6. Enlightenment. In Phase 6, people completely accept the new change. In fact, many wonder how they ever managed the "old" way. Overall, they feel good about the change and accept it as the status quo from here forward.
It is important to note that people in the organizations will proceed through the different phases at different rates of speed. One person may require two months to reach Phase 6 while another may require twelve. To make things even more complex, the cycle of change is not linear. In other words, a person does not necessarily complete Phase 1 through 6 in order. It is much more common for people to jump around. One person may go from Phase 4 to Phase 5 and then back to Phase 2 again. That is why there is no easy way to determine how long a change will take to implement. However, by using the skills we've outlined above, you increase your chances of managing the change as effectively as possible.
Most people prefer predictability and stability in both their personal and professional lives. People typically avoid situations that upset order, threaten their self-interests, increase stress or involve risk. When faced with changes to the status quo, people usually resist initially. The resistance continues and, in some cases increases, until they are able to recognize the benefits of change and perceive the gains to be worth more than the risk or threats to their self-interests. James O'Toole points out in his book, Leading Change, that people resist change due to the fundamental human objection to having the will of others imposed upon them.
Overcoming Resistance to Change: Most Common Ways
• Education and communication
• Participation and involvement
• Facilitation and support
• Negotiation and agreement
• Manipulation and co-optation
• Explicit and implicit coercion

Leaders should anticipate resistance to any change effort, prepare for it, and make special efforts to assess and deal with individual reactions to change.
Leaders must develop the proper attitude toward resistance to change and realize that it is neither good nor bad. In fact, resistance can serve as a signal that there are ways in which the change effort should be modified and improved. The following steps should help leaders faced with resistance to their change attempts:
• Actively seek out people's thoughts and reactions to the proposed changes.
• Listen carefully. Do not launch into lengthy diatribes justifying the change - in the early stages, people are not interested in that. They want to be heard and have their concerns attended to. Recognize that it takes time to work through reactions to change.
• Engage people in dialogue about the change. Leaders should do this only after fully understanding the specific concerns of others.
• Involve Others
There is no better way to minimize resistance to change than to involve those responsible for implementing it and those affected by it. If there is no involvement early on in the planning, during the implementation and throughout perpetuation, the change effort will fail. When people feel that they are valued participants in planning and implementing the change, they are more likely to be motivated toward successful completion. The following techniques are effective ways to get people involved and gain their commitment to change efforts:
• Determine who must be involved in planning the change and include them in the decision making process. Err on the side of involving more people rather than fewer. If there is a question as to whether or not a certain person's support will be needed, include them.
• Ensure that people from all levels of the organization are involved in planning the change process. This means involving the people that are at the on the floor level as well. It will be these people who will make the change process succeed or fail.
• Consult with employees from the areas affected by the change when determining the steps needed for change.
• Seek input from people at all levels to establish realistic time frames for specific actions.
• When possible, run a test program with a selected work unit and solicit feedback on what is working well, where the problem areas are and how to work out any difficulties.
• Publicly recognize any employees whose suggestions are used in the change process.
• Design a mechanism that provides ongoing feedback from employees throughout the change effort. Involved people are an effective barometer of what is working well and what is not working well. Ask them to suggest improvements.


http://changingminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/resistance_change.htm
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/change_resistance.html
http://www.newfoundations.com/OrgTheory/Bolognese721.html
http://www.businessperform.com/change-management/resistance_to_change.html
http://www.managingchange.biz/manage_change_resistance.html
http://www.schulersolutions.com/resistance_to_change.html
http://archive.gao.gov/d32t10/146630.pdf
http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Security/Lack-of-Controls-IT-Budget-Hurting-Database-Security-Efforts/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system
http://www.tdan.com/view-articles/5262

What are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan?
note: you are required to interview an IS professional/s for your answer ...

An Information System Plan or ISP, on the other hand, is basically a plan concentrated on aligning the information systems of an organization to its business plan as a whole. An information system is comprised of the hardware, software and peopleware of an organization. Usually, the term information system is related to using technology as a crucial part of an organization. The term is also used to identify the computer-based system that an organization is using. According to Michael M. Gorman, the information systems plan project determines the sequence for implementing specific information systems. The goal of the strategy is to deliver the most valuable business information at the earliest time possible in the most cost-effective manner. The end product of the information systems project is an information systems plan (ISP). Once deployed, the information systems department can implement the plan with confidence that they are doing the correct information systems project at the right time and in the right sequence. The focus of the ISP is not one information system but the entire suite of information systems for the enterprise. Once developed, each identified information system is seen in context with all other information systems within the enterprise. Gorman has also identified some of the characteristics that an ISP should have and these are the following:
An ISP should be timely. An ISP that is created long after it is needed is useless. In almost all cases, it makes no sense to take longer to plan work than to perform the work planned. The ISP must be useable. It must be so for all the projects as well as for each project. The ISP should exist in sections that once adopted can be parceled out to project managers and immediately started. The ISP must be maintainable. New business opportunities, new computers, business mergers, etc. all affect the ISP. The ISP must support quick changes to the estimates, technologies employed, and possibly even to the fundamental project sequences. Once these changes are accomplished, the new ISP should be just a few computer program executions away. While the ISP must be a quality product, no ISP is ever perfect on the first try. As the ISP is executed, the metrics employed to derive the individual project estimates become refined as a consequence of new hardware technologies, code generators, techniques, or faster working staff. As these changes occur, their effects should be installable into the data that supports ISP computation. In short, the ISP is a living document. It should be updated with every technology event, and certainly no less often than quarterly. The ISP must be reproducible. That is, when its development activities are performed by any other staff, the ISP produced should essentially be the same. The ISP should not significantly vary by staff assigned.
An Information System (IS) is any combination of information technology and people's activities using that technology to support operations, management, and decision-making.[1] In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, algorithmic processes, data and technology. In this sense, the term is used to refer not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes. Some make a clear distinction between information systems, ICT and business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology in that an information system is typically seen as having an ICT component. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes. Alter argues for an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans and/or machines perform work using resources (including ICT) to produce specific products and/or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to processing (capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying) information. Part of the difficulty in defining the term information system is due to vagueness in the definition of related terms such as system and information. Beynon-Davies argues for a clearer terminology based in systemics and semiotics. He defines an information system as an example of a system concerned with the manipulation of signs. An information system is a type of socio-technical system. An information system is a mediating construct between actions and technology. As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action. Information systems are the primary focus of study for the information systems discipline and for organizational informatics. Information systems are important tools for effectively meeting organizational objectives. Readily available, complete, and accurate information is essential for making informed and timely decisions. Being unable to obtain needed data, wading through unneeded data, or inefficiently processing needed data wastes resources. The organization must identify its information needs on the basis of a systematic identification and analysis of its mission and functions to be performed, who is to perform them, the information and supporting data needed to perform the functions, and the processes needed to most usefully structure the information. Successful information system development and acquisition must include a rigorous and disciplined process of data gathering, evaluation, and analysis prior to committing significant financial and human resources to any information system development. While implementing such an approach may not preclude all information system acquisition problems, it should produce detailed knowledge of organizational missions and operations, user information needs and alternatives to address those needs, and an open and flexible architecture that is expandable or that can be upgraded to meet future needs. The purpose and use of information system in the beginning was targeted towards reducing manual labor and increasing efficiency and thus reducing cost of doing business. Cost has thus been the ‘primal instinct’ justification for the usage of Information system in companies. Management seems to still use this justification even in today’s day and age because the IT salesman still thinks it’s the best and only way to get management buy-in. Moreover, as most other rationales used for IS have proved hard to sell, both the IT sales teams and their customers find a comfort zone in cost savings. This could also be because both sides (from all their previous experiences) are convinced of their failure before they even start out on a different track. The past experiences, in most cases were times they tried, half heartedly probably, without enough experience and failed. These failures have resulted in the baby being thrown out along with the dirty water.
For most businesses, the requirements on the computing side at least should include:
* Hardware; the actual computers and servers.
* Software; programs and operating systems.
* Phone lines.
* Internet systems.
* Computing consumables and peripherals.
*Information Technology Support.
* Computer training, if needed, for staff.
The amount of technological requirements needed by a business will again depend on the size and type of business. This is by no means an extensive list and all companies will be different, but this does represent at least the basic technology requirements. The budget may increase or decrease depending on the sophistication of the equipment and the software needed. Another issue that concerns budgetary factor is the decision whether to lease or buy technology. In the long run it may seem like buying is the less expensive option, but leasing is usually the cheaper option when repairs and upgrading technology are factored in. Most small businesses should take the leasing option in order to save on the capital outlay that comes with buying, and upgrading new technology. Marc Berthiaume cited some important considerations that a company should put in mind when planning for an IT budget. According to Berthiaume’s article, the following are some step-by-step guidelines to follow when planning your IT budget:
1. Calculate your technology costs from the previous year. Unless you are planning major changes in your IT strategy, this will give you a range to work with.
2. Most companies plan for moderate growth. These companies should set up a category for IT maintenance/support and one for new technology expenditures. (Companies should first calculate maintenance/support of existing equipment, since this number will remain approximately the same as the previous year.)
3. If you plan to purchase new systems or services, you should calculate the cost of the technology and then budget for installation and maintenance_ Depending on complexity, you also may want to budget for testing and downtime. Get estimates and make sure to pad this cost in case things take longer to install than originally expected.
4. Once you've calculated standard IT purchases and maintenance costs for the year, create a separate budget line for technology development--this is for longer-term IT planning, including new IT projects or major system upgrades.
5. Err on the conservative side and consider the possibility of leasing and outsourcing when faced with costly technology expenditures.
I can say that budgeting itself for an Information system (which already includes IT) is such a tedious task. Aside from the tips mentioned by article writers above, the IS planner could also develop his or her own standards on planning for the Information system based on the budget that he or she is given.
We have interviewed the MIS Supervisor of Samulco or Sta. Ana Multipurpose Cooperative last December 14. We asked him what are the two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plan. And he answered these:
1. Lack of Budget- the company only has limited budget for the system or it does not have any budget for the system. A budget is generally a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for saving and spending. The purpose of budgeting is to: Provide a forecast of revenues and expenditures i.e. construct a model of how our business might perform financially speaking if certain strategies, events and plans are carried out. And enable the actual financial operation of the business to be measured against the forecast.
The budget of a company is often compiled annually, but may not be. A finished budget, usually requiring considerable effort, is a plan for the short-term future, typically one year. While traditionally the Finance department compiles the company's budget, modern software allows hundreds or even thousands of people in various departments (operations, human resources, IT etc) to list their expected revenues and expenses in the final budget. If the actual figures delivered through the budget period come close to the budget, this suggests that the managers understand their business and have been successfully driving it in the intended direction. On the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an 'out of control' signal, and the share price could suffer as a result. Not only is the Lack of Budget can make a system not implement, lack of budget can also Lack of Budget is one of the dangerous factors in a company.
2. Resistance to Change- Resistance to change is the action taken by individuals and groups when they perceive that a change that is occurring as a threat to them. Most people don't like change because they don't like being changed. When change comes into view, fear and resistance to change follow – often despite its obvious benefits. People fight against change because they:
• fear to lose something they value, or
• don't understand the change and its implications, or
• don't think that the change makes sense, or
• find it difficult to cope with either the level or pace of the change.
Resistance emerges when there s a threat to something the individual values. The threat may be real or it may be just a perception. It may arise from a genuine understanding of the change or from misunderstanding, or even almost total ignorance about it.
For some people resisting change, there may be multiple reasons. Adding to this complexity is the fact that sometimes the stated reason hides the real, more deeply personal reason. You will also need to recognize that people work through a psychological change process as they give up the old and come to either embrace or reject the new. Typically, they may experience an initial denial, then begin to realize that the change cannot be ignored. Strong feelings may emerge, such as fear, anger, helplessness and frustration. Finally, the person accepts the change either negatively, with feelings of resignation and complacency, or positively, with renewed enthusiasm to capitalize on the changes. Watch out for employees who get “stuck” in one phase. Offer your support. Allow space for people to work through the stages. Give employees time to draw breath and listen with empathy.

Resistance to Change in the Workplace: Main Reasons
Fear of the unknown. Change implies uncertainty, and uncertainty is uncomfortable. Not knowing what may potentially happen often leads to heightened anxiety. Resisting change is one of the anxiety-reducing actions. Fear of failure. The new order may require skill and abilities that may be beyond our capabilities. There is resistance to trying a new approach as people know how to operate in the existing order, but fear they will not be able to the new skills and behavior that will be required of them. Disagreement with the need for change. Associates may feel that the new direction is a wrong direction. Losing something of value. All associates want to know how the change will affect them. If people believe they will wind up losing as a result of the change, they will resist. Leaving a comfort zone. People are afraid to go after what they want because it would force them to stretch their comfort zones. It's only natural to put off things that scare us, to sidestep goals that require us to leave our comfort zone and take a risk. False beliefs. To put themselves at ease and avoid taking the risk, many people fool themselves into believing everything will all work out someday by itself. Misunderstanding and lack of trust. People resist change when they do not understand its implications and perceive that it might cost them much more than they gain. Such situations often occur when trust is lacking between the person initiating the change and the employees. Inertia. All organizations suffer from inertia to some degree and try to maintain status quo. Change requires effort, oftentimes, a significant one. So, don't underestimate the power of fatigue and burnout.

Additional Reason to Resistance to Change
The Risk Of Change Is Seen As Greater Than The Risk Of Standing Still. Making a change requires a kind of leap of faith: you decide to move in the direction of the unknown on the promise that something will be better for you. But you have no proof. Taking that leap of faith is risky, and people will only take active steps toward the unknown if they genuinely believe – and perhaps more importantly, feel – that the risks of standing still are greater than those of moving forward in a new direction. Making a change is all about managing risk. If you are making the case for change, be sure to set out in stark, truthful terms why you believe the risk situation favors change. Use numbers whenever you can, because we in the West pay attention to numbers. At the very least, they get our attention, and then when the rational mind is engaged, the emotional mind (which is typically most decisive) can begin to grapple with the prospect of change. But if you only sell your idea of change based on idealistic, unseen promises of reward, you won’t be nearly as effective in moving people to action. The power of the human fight-or-flight response can be activated to fight for change, but that begins with the perception of risk. People Feel Connected To Other People Who Are Identified With The Old Way. We are a social species. We become and like to remains connected to those we know those who have taught us, those with whom we are familiar – even at times to our own detriment. Loyalty certainly helped our ancestors hunt antelope and defend against the aggressions of hostile tribes, and so we are hard wired, I believe, to form emotional bonds of loyalty, generally speaking. If you ask people in an organization to do things in a new way, as rational as that new way may seem to you, you will be setting yourself up against all that hard wiring, all those emotional connections to those who taught your audience the old way - and that’s not trivial. At the very least, as you craft your change message, you should make statements that honor the work and contributions of those who brought such success to the organization in the past, because on a very human but seldom articulated level, your audience will feel asked to betray their former mentors (whether those people remain in the organization or not). A little good diplomacy at the outset can stave off a lot of resistance. People Have No Role Models For The New Activity. Never underestimate the power of observational learning. If you see yourself as a change agent, you probably are something of a dreamer, someone who uses the imagination to create new possibilities that do not currently exist. Well, most people don’t operate that way. It’s great to be a visionary, but communicating a vision is not enough. Get some people on board with your idea, so that you or they can demonstrate how the new way can work. Operationally, this can mean setting up effective pilot programs that model a change and work out the kinks before taking your innovation “on the road.” For most people, seeing is believing. Less rhetoric and more demonstration can go a long way toward overcoming resistance, changing people’s objections from the “It can’t be done!” variety to the “How can we get it done?” category. People Fear They Lack The Competence To Change. This is a fear people will seldom admit. But sometimes, change in organizations necessitates changes in skills, and some people will feel that they won’t be able to make the transition very well. They don’t think they, as individuals, can do it. The hard part is that some of them may be right. But in many cases, their fears will be unfounded, and that’s why part of moving people toward change requires you to be an effective motivator. Even more, a successful change campaign includes effective new training programs, typically staged from the broad to the specific. By this I mean that initial events should be town-hall type information events, presenting the rationale and plan for change, specifying the next steps, outlining future communications channels for questions, etc., and specifying how people will learn the specifics of what will be required of them, from whom, and when. Then, training programs must be implemented and evaluated over time. In this way, you can minimize the initial fear of a lack of personal competence for change by showing how people will be brought to competence throughout the change process. Then you have to deliver. People Feel Overloaded And Overwhelmed. Fatigue can really kill a change effort, for an individual or for an organization. If, for example, you believe you should quit smoking, but you’ve got ten projects going and four kids to keep up with, it can be easy to put off your personal health improvement project (until your first heart attack or cancer scare, when suddenly the risks of standing still seem greater than the risks of change!). When you’re introducing a change effort, be aware of fatigue as a factor in keeping people from moving forward, even if they are telling you they believe in the wisdom of your idea. If an organization has been through a lot of upheaval, people may resist change just because they are tired and overwhelmed, perhaps at precisely the time when more radical change is most needed! That’s when you need to do two things: re-emphasize the risk scenario that forms the rationale for change (as in my cancer scare example), and also be very generous and continuously attentive with praise, and with understanding for people’s complaints, throughout the change process. When you reemphasize the risk scenario, you’re activating people’s fears, the basic fight-or-flight response we all possess. But that’s not enough, and fear can produce its own fatigue. You’ve got to motivate and praise accomplishments as well, and be patient enough to let people vent (without getting too caught up in attending to unproductive negativity). People Have A Healthy Skepticism And Want To Be Sure New Ideas Are Sound. It’s important to remember that few worthwhile changes are conceived in their final, best form at the outset. Healthy skeptics perform an important social function: to vet the change idea or process so that it can be improved upon along the road to becoming reality. So listen to your skeptics, and pay attention, because some percentage of what they have to say will prompt genuine improvements to your change idea (even if some of the criticism you will hear will be based more on fear and anger than substance).
People Fear Hidden Agendas Among Would-Be Reformers. Let’s face it, reformers can be a motley lot. Not all are to be trusted. Perhaps even more frightening, some of the worst atrocities modern history has known were begun by earnest people who really believed they knew what was best for everyone else. Reformers, as a group, share a blemished past . . . And so, you can hardly blame those you might seek to move toward change for mistrusting your motives, or for thinking you have another agenda to follow shortly. If you seek to promote change in an organization, not only can you expect to encounter resentment for upsetting the established order and for thinking you know better than everyone else, but you may also be suspected of wanted to increase your own power, or even eliminate potential opposition through later stages of change. I saw this in a recent change management project for which I consulted, when management faced a lingering and inextinguishable suspicion in some quarters that the whole affair was a prelude to far-reaching layoffs. It was not the case, but no amount of reason or reassurance sufficed to quell the fears of some people. What’s the solution? Well, you’d better be interested in change for the right reasons, and not for personal or factional advantage, if you want to minimize and overcome resistance. And you’d better be as open with information and communication as you possibly can be, without reacting unduly to accusations and provocations, in order to show your good faith, and your genuine interest in the greater good of the organization. And if your change project will imply reductions in workforce, then be open about that and create an orderly process for outplacement and in-house retraining. Avoid the drip-drip-drip of bad news coming out in stages, or through indirect communication or rumor. Get as much information out there as fast as you can and create a process to allow everyone to move on and stay focused on the change effort. People Feel The Proposed Change Threatens Their Notions Of Themselves. Sometimes change on the job gets right to a person’s sense of identity. When a factory worker begins to do less with her hands and more with the monitoring of automated instruments, she may lose her sense of herself as a craftsperson, and may genuinely feel that the very things that attracted her to the work in the first place have been lost. I saw this among many medical people and psychologists during my graduate training, as the structures of medical reimbursement in this country changed in favor of the insurance companies, HMO’s and managed care organizations. Medical professionals felt they had less say in the treatment of their patients, and felt answerable to less well trained people in the insurance companies to approve treatments the doctors felt were necessary. And so, the doctors felt they had lost control of their profession, and lost the ability to do what they thought best for patients. My point is not to take sides in that argument, but to point out how change can get right to a person’s sense of identity, the sense of self as a professional. As a result, people may feel that the intrinsic rewards that brought them to a particular line of work will be lost with the change. And in some cases, they may be absolutely right. The only answer is to help people see and understand the new rewards that may come with a new work process, or to see how their own underlying sense of mission and values can still be realized under the new way of operating. When resistance springs from these identity-related roots, it is deep and powerful, and to minimize its force, change leaders must be able to understand it and then address it, acknowledging that change does have costs, but also, (hopefully) larger benefits. People Anticipate A Loss Of Status Or Quality Of Life. Real change reshuffles the deck a bit. Reshuffling the deck can bring winners . . . and losers. Some people, most likely, will gain in status, job security, quality of life, etc. with the proposed change, and some will likely lose a bit. Change does not have to be a zero sum game, and change can (and should) bring more advantage to more people than disadvantage. But we all live in the real world, and let’s face it – if there were no obstacles (read: people and their interests) aligned against change, then special efforts to promote change would be unnecessary. Some people will, in part, be aligned against change because they will clearly, and in some cases correctly, view the change as being contrary to their interests. There are various strategies for minimizing this, and for dealing with steadfast obstacles to change in the form of people and their interests, but the short answer for dealing with this problem is to do what you can to present the inevitability of the change given the risk landscape, and offer to help people to adjust. Having said that, I’ve never seen a real organizational change effort that did not result in some people choosing to leave the organization, and sometimes that’s best for all concerned. When the organization changes, it won’t be to everyone likes, and in that case, it’s best for everyone to be adult about it and move on. People Genuinely Believe That The Proposed Change Is A Bad Idea. I’ll never forget what a supervisor of mine said to be, during the year after I had graduated from college, secure as I was in the knowledge of my well earned, pedigreed wisdom at age twenty-two. We were in a meeting, and I made the comment, in response to some piece of information, “Oh, I didn’t know that!” Ricky, my boss, looked at me sideways, and commented dryly, “Things you don’t know . . . fill libraries.” The truth is, sometimes someone’s (even – gasp! – my) idea of change is just not a good idea. Sometimes people are not being recalcitrant, or afraid, or muddle-headed, or nasty, or foolish when they resist. They just see that we’re wrong. And even if we’re not all wrong, but only half wrong, or even if we’re right, it’s important not to ignore when people have genuine, rational reservations or objections. Not all resistance is about emotion, in spite of this list I’ve assembled here. To win people’s commitment for change, you must engage them on both a rational level and an emotional level. I’ve emphasized the emotional side of the equation for this list because I find, in my experience, that this is the area would-be change agents understand least well. But I’m also mindful that a failure to listen to and respond to people’s rational objections and beliefs is ultimately disrespectful to them, and to assume arrogantly that we innovative, change agent types really do know best. A word to the wise: we’re just as fallible as anyone.
The six phases personal or professional change
1. Anticipation. The waiting stage. They really don't know what to expect so they wait, anticipating what the future holds.
2. Confrontation. People begin to confront reality. The realize that change is really going to happen or is happening.
3. Realization. Post change - Realizing that nothing is ever going to be as it once was.
4. Depression. Often a necessary step in the change process. This is the stage where a person mourns the past. Not only have they realized the change intellectually, but now they are beginning to comprehend it emotionally as well.
5. Acceptance. Aacceptance of the change emotionally. Although they may still have reservations, they are not fighting the change at this stage. They may even see some of the benefits even if they are not completely convinced.
6. Enlightenment. In Phase 6, people completely accept the new change. In fact, many wonder how they ever managed the "old" way. Overall, they feel good about the change and accept it as the status quo from here forward.
It is important to note that people in the organizations will proceed through the different phases at different rates of speed. One person may require two months to reach Phase 6 while another may require twelve. To make things even more complex, the cycle of change is not linear. In other words, a person does not necessarily complete Phase 1 through 6 in order. It is much more common for people to jump around. One person may go from Phase 4 to Phase 5 and then back to Phase 2 again. That is why there is no easy way to determine how long a change will take to implement. However, by using the skills we've outlined above, you increase your chances of managing the change as effectively as possible. Most people prefer predictability and stability in both their personal and professional lives. People typically avoid situations that upset order, threaten their self-interests, increase stress or involve risk. When faced with changes to the status quo, people usually resist initially. The resistance continues and, in some cases increases, until they are able to recognize the benefits of change and perceive the gains to be worth more than the risk or threats to their self-interests. James O'Toole points out in his book, Leading Change, that people resist change due to the fundamental human objection to having the will of others imposed upon them. Overcoming Resistance to Change: Most Common Ways:
• Education and communication
• Participation and involvement
• Facilitation and support
• Negotiation and agreement
• Manipulation and co-optation
• Explicit and implicit coercion
Leaders should anticipate resistance to any change effort, prepare for it, and make special efforts to assess and deal with individual reactions to change. Leaders must develop the proper attitude toward resistance to change and realize that it is neither good nor bad. In fact, resistance can serve as a signal that there are ways in which the change effort should be modified and improved. The following steps should help leaders faced with resistance to their change attempts:
• Actively seek out people's thoughts and reactions to the proposed changes.
• Listen carefully. Do not launch into lengthy diatribes justifying the change - in the early stages, people are not interested in that. They want to be heard and have their concerns attended to. Recognize that it takes time to work through reactions to change.
• Engage people in dialogue about the change. Leaders should do this only after fully understanding the specific concerns of others.
• Involve Others
There is no better way to minimize resistance to change than to involve those responsible for implementing it and those affected by it. If there is no involvement early on in the planning, during the implementation and throughout perpetuation, the change effort will fail. When people feel that they are valued participants in planning and implementing the change, they are more likely to be motivated toward successful completion. The following techniques are effective ways to get people involved and gain their commitment to change efforts:
• Determine who must be involved in planning the change and include them in the decision making process. Err on the side of involving more people rather than fewer. If there is a question as to whether or not a certain person's support will be needed, include them.
• Ensure that people from all levels of the organization are involved in planning the change process. This means involving the people that are at the on the floor level as well. It will be these people who will make the change process succeed or fail.
• Consult with employees from the areas affected by the change when determining the steps needed for change.
• Seek input from people at all levels to establish realistic time frames for specific actions.
• When possible, run a test program with a selected work unit and solicit feedback on what is working well, where the problem areas are and how to work out any difficulties.
• Publicly recognize any employees whose suggestions are used in the change process.
• Design a mechanism that provides ongoing feedback from employees throughout the change effort. Involved people are an effective barometer of what is working well and what is not working well. Ask them to suggest improvements.
In conclusion, developing an IS plan can be a critical job for most companies and can produce possible source of frustrations on the IS planner’s part. These frustrations can be different from IS planner to another but they all provide a venue for the IS planner to think of ways to mitigate them. It is important to take note of important source of frustrations from planning an information system and develop a plan first in order to avoid them or lessen their impact on the actual planning and implementation itself. I may not be an IS planner now but from what I learned from the interviews and researches that I conducted I can generally say that the key move here is to think ahead, consider even the smallest details and consider the end users of the information system a significant part of the plan itself.
We should know how to face and handle frustrations because we do not know when we might encounter it. If we do not know how to handle frustrations then we might end up sulking in a corner because we feel rejected. Frustrations can cause downfall and sometimes complete failure on a man, an organization or a company. In the world of information technology, there are a lot of things that can become a cause of frustrations among the information technology or information systems professional. Another common form of frustration among the information technology or information systems professionals is change itself. Again, change is constant. It never stops on changing - changing people, changing economy, changing everything that you could ever imagine. Change can be good, for others, change can be bad. Some like it and some fear it. Yet, no matter how we see change, we still have a choice, either to accept and adapt to change, or to resist and remain unchanged. Change will always be there. For those who fear it, change will always haunt them. For those who like it, change will always be their sign of opportunity. Change, it is the only thing which is permanent, that it changes everything and that change itself is everything. Moreover, whether we like it or not, change happens rapidly. And for the record, most of the time people find themselves trying not to get left behind. The same thing happens in the world of Information Technology. Technology has come a very long way and it never stopped changing. From the very first computer man has ever built, up to the latest technologies man has never dreamed would ever be built. What is new today becomes obsolete in the next few months due to fast innovations and upgrades. In the part of the information technology or information systems professionals, it is a must for them to develop an information technology or information systems plan that is, as mush as possible, flexible for a number of years. Frustration can have a highly damaging impact on our frame of mind. It can turn a positive person into a person who sees nearly everything as a problem. It can slow you down, inhibit your progress, and at times completely immobilize you. We can become so wound up with our frustration that we do not, and cannot, think or act rationally. Our frustration can often exacerbate a situation and create a vicious circle. If we are convinced that our actions are not working, no matter how hard we try, we are much more likely to reduce, rather than increase, our chances of success. If you feel that your degree of frustration is really out of control, if it is having an impact on your relationships and on important parts of your life, you might consider counseling to learn how to handle it better. A psychologist or other licensed mental health professional can work with you in developing a range of techniques for changing your thinking and your behavior. Remember, you cannot eliminate frustration. In spite of all your efforts, things will happen that will cause you frustration and anger. Life is filled with frustration, pain, loss, and the unpredictable actions of others. You can't change that; but you can change the way you let such events affect you.